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Knowledge of Natural 
History 

REVISED FROM 

Reason Why: Natural History 



Giving Reasons for Hundreds of Interesting Facts in con- 
nection with Zoology; and throwing Light upon the 
Peculiar Habits and Instincts of the Vari- 
ous Orders of the Animal Kingdom. 



BY THE AUTHOR OF 

"Knowledge of the Bible," "Knowledge of General Science," etc. 



Illustrated with Numerous Engravings 



We proceed here by the Induction Process, taking nothing on trust, 
nothing for granted, but reasoning upwards from the meanest fact estab- 
lished, and making every step sure before going one beyond it — like 
the engineer in his approaches to a fortress. We thus gain, ultimately, 
a roadway, a ladder, by which even a Child may, almost without knowing 
it, ascend to the summit of Truth, and obtain that immensely wide and 
extensive view which is spread beneath the feet of the astonished be- 
holder. 



J. B. SANDERS & COMPANY 

Publishers 

Cincinnati, Ohio 



a! 



T 



$y 



Copyrighted, 1916. 
J. B. SANDERS, 
Cincinnati, Ohio. 




NOV 28 1916 

^>CU445848 



WHY WE HAVE REVISED AND PUBLISHED 
THIS BOOK. 

First, realizing that the time has come that people in 
general want to know things and they want to learn it as 
easy as possible. Hence this volume is put in print. 

If there is any other book of the same size that treats 
on the same subject that has as much real knowledge in it, 
we never have seen it nor we have never seen anyone else 
that v would say that they had seen its equal. When you 
have this book as your own, you have something that has 
taken years of hard work and lots of gray matter to obtain 
and will be a great treasure for any library or home. It 
will be as good as long as time lasts as its information is 
absolutely reliable. There is no one that has the least 
asperation to know things that can deprive himself of this 
book. It will be a store-house of real information as long 
as time rolls on and will be used by your children's chil- 
dren. It is sent out in the name of the Giver of all Wis- 
dom that it will gladden hearts everywhere on account of its 
simple way of revealing knowledge. 

Respectfully, 

J. B. Sanders & Co., Publishers, 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 



PUBLISHER'S PREFACE 



The present volume of The KNOWLEDGE OF Nat- 
ural HISTORY is calculated to give not merely an in- 
creased interest, but a new application, to the science of 
Natural History. The old system of study comprehended 
merely a description of the external form, geographical hab- 
itation, and distinguishing habits, of individual species. The 
interest of the subject mainly rested upon anecdotes of ani- 
mal sagacity or ferocity, and the perils of adventure into 
the wilds of nature. Few writers had ventured to inquire 
into reasons for the peculiarities of animal forms, or to 
seek Creative Design in their wonderful diversity, and 
mutual relations. 

The Knowledge of Natural History is not a 
mere compilation. The Author has frorp boyhood been a 
close observer of the habits of animals, and both upon sea 
and land he has delighted to endeavor to interpret Nature's 
works. Hence the conception of the plan of this volume, 
and the diversity — perhaps boldness — of the questions 
asked. 

The Knowledge of Natural History will par- 
ticularly commend itself to most readers by the conversa- 
tional freedom of its style — by the bold pertinence of some 
of its questions, and the frank, straightforwardness of its 
answers. It will thus be seen that it is not a mere compila- 
tion of the arid facts of naturalists, or a drowsy catechism 
of the wonders of this branch of creation; it is, on the con- 
trary, a lively table-talk, as it were, between an eager, ob- 



vi PREFACE. 

servant, curious inquirer, and a gossipy friend thoroughly 
informed upon every point on which his friend is probing 
for enlightenment and entertainment. Besides the grand basis, 
therefore, of acknowledged scientific truths relative to the 
higher order of animal life, The KNOWLEDGE OF NAT- 
URAL History gives us a vast accumulation of interesting 
facts from the private storehouse of current experience. 
The interrogatories are just those which an inquisitive stu- 
dent would be likely to put to his instructor in obedience to 
the suggestions of the text; but, they are consequently those 
to which, in numberless instances, no work extant could 
furnish him with a satisfactory reply. He could obtain 
that reply from nothing but the practical knowledge of one 
familiar with the every day details, as well as the less com- 
mon-place class of information on the subject. In this 
volume, all he seeks is grouped before him. The mental 
food he craves is prepared to his hand, seasoned to his 
taste, and exquisitely fitted to his moral digestion. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES 



CONSULTED AND QUOTED IN THE 

Knowledge of Natural History 



Bailey's Habits of the Fish. 

Bechstein's Cage Birds. 

Bell on the Hand. 

Bell's British Reptiles. 

Bell's British Crustacea. 

Broderip's Leaves from the Note 
Book of a Naturalist. 

Buckland's Curiosities of Natural 

Buffon's Natural History. [History. 

Burnett's The Power, Wisdom, and 
Goodness of God. 

Carpenter's Physiology. 

Chalmer's Power, Wisdom, and Good- 
ness of God. 

Conversations on the Human Frame. 

Couch's Illustrations of Instinct. 

Crompton's Birds, Fishes, and Insects. 

Cross' Physiology of Human Nature. 

Cuvier's Animal Kingdom. 

Davis* Naturalist's Practical Guide. 

Davy's Salmonia. 

Davy's Researches. 

Dixon's Domestic Poultry. 

Donovan's Natural History of British 
Insects. 

Donovan's Natural History of British 
Quadrupeds. 

Edward's Influence of Physical 
Agents. 

Elliotson's Human Physiology. 

Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. 

Fennell's Natural History of Quadru- 
peds. 

Garratt's Marvels and Mysteries of 
Instinct. 

Goldsmith's Animated Nature. 

Gosse's Life in its Lower Grades. 

Henfrey's Natural History. 

Hoeven's Handbook of Zoology. 

Howitt's Calender of the Seasons. 

Jardine's Naturalist's Library. 

Jesse's Gleanings from Natural His- 
tory. 

Karr's Tour round my Garden. 

Kidd's Adaptation of External Nature. 

Kirke's Handbook of Physiology. 

Kirby and Spence's Entomology. 

Lee's Elements of Natural History. 

Lewes's Seaside Studies. 

London's Domestic Pets. 

Lardner's Animal Physiology. 

Latham's Varieties of Man. 

Lord's Popular Physiology. 



Laurence's Lectures on Comparative 
Anatomy. 

Magazine of Natural History. 

Magendie's Elementary Compendium. 

Martin's Birds and Domestic Fowls. 

Maunder's Treasury of Natural His- 
tory. 

Mudie's Feathered Tribes. 

Natural History for Young People. 

Nutall's Ornithology. 

Orr's Circle of the Sciences. 

Owen's Basis of Natural History. 

Paley's Natural Theology. 

Partington's Cyclopaedia. 

Penny Cyclopaedia. 

Philosophy of Common Things. 

Physiology of Health. 

Pliny's Natural History. 

Pritchard's Natural History of Man. 

Rennie's Bird Miscellanies. 

Rennie's Bird Architecture. 

Smellie's Philosophy of Naturel His- 
tory. 

Smith's Natural History of the Human 
Species. 

Stanley's Familiar History of Birds. 

St. Pierre's Studies of Nature. 

Swainson's Natural History of Quad- 
rupeds. 

Swainson's Natural History of Birds. 

Swainson's Habits and Instincts of 
Animals. 

Swainson's Natural History of Fishes. 

Swainson's Natural History of Insects. 

Twining's Short Lectures. 

Universal Powers of Nature. 

Ward's Natural History of Mankind. 

Waterton's Essays on Natural History* 

Waterton's Wanderings in South 
America. 

Wesley's Compendium of Natural 
Philosophy. 

White's History of Selborne. 

Wilson's Diseases of the Skin. 

Wilson's Ornithology. 

Wonders of the Human Frame. 

Wonders of Organic Life. 

Yarrell's History of British Birds. 

Yarrell's History of British Fishes. 

Youatt on the Horse. 

Youatt on the Sheep. 

Youatt on the Dog. 



INDEX 



The numbers, except where otherwise indicated, refer to the Questions. 

Acanthoptera, why is the first certain the presence of, by 

sub-order of fishes so called 1102 the movements of mosquitoes 420 

Accipetres, why is the first Articulata, how classified 165 

order of birds so called 647 Ass, why better kept on com- 

Agama, why has it the power mons than in pastures 501 

of inflating its body 1016 Ass, why is the milk of, best 

Age, why is the human body for invalids , 502 

hard and angular when old— 39 Aves 164 

Ai, why so called 403 Avocet, why is its bill shaped 

Alligator, why so called 1012 like a scoop 903 

American, why the race so Badgers, why erroneous to sup- 

oalled 5 P ose tna t they burrow into 

Amphibia ~_J__ 164 graves and devour bodies 239 

Amphibia, why is the fourth or- Badger, why is the female more 

der of reptiles so called 1026 careful than the male in bur- 

Anacanthina, why is the sub- : rowing 240 

order of fishes so named 1088 Badgers, narrative of two, in a 

Anchovies, what are they 1061 „ state of confinment 241 

Animal bodies, why the varia- Badger-hunting, why m amuse- 

tion of most common in the _, ment of former times __ 242 

center 16 Badger, modes adopted of taking 243 

Animals, why classified by nat- 5 ar t e !* w _ y so c L aIle ^ -_ 1076 

uralists 161 Barbel, why is the first ray of 

Animals, why do some undergo _ »«■ dorsal finr deeply serrated 1077 

a state of torpor 628 Barbel, why has it fouV wattles 

Animals, why has every race its « °" , lts ^J ^"-TrTZ 1078 

appointed enemies 1153 Barbe > . why do sma11 fish at " 1A _ 

Animals, table of their fecun- - * end ** j— -r^yrr 1 ?Z? 

jj ty _ 1155 Bats, why not classed with birds 185 

Animals," why "d7e77h"e"ir~ du7a~- Bats ' . w , hy are the win * s of ' 



tion of life vary 1156 



hooked 186 



.Animals, table of SSTm^ .... "»* ***** AS " 8 " 1 them 



periods 1157 



selves during day l 187 



Anther, A_S_^£?7_, * gajs, why do they fly. by night 189 

a long snout and protrusive Ba **„' hy haVe their wmgs «„ 

tntidiif A.'yy nerves loo 

^!f*fa_£ 42< Ba ^ ^^^TS^SS^ 191 

A-^J^f wL"o-f"-_™r-?« Bats compared with moles____ 194 

portance in nature 424 heads _ 264 

Ant-hills, description oi 425 B ^"nave'lnVVn^wkl 

Apes, how are they distinguished ward ^ ait _ 235 

from baboons and monkeys__ 172 Bears, why are'theTYood" cHmb^ 

Arm, how are its motions per- ers 236 

a f ° rn !?n — ,— 7~r- -r.-- f>\ Bears, why""u~n"inj_red"~in"ex" 

Armadillo, why is it so called 416 posed places 237 

Aramadillo, how is its form Bears, why do tfiey easily stand 

peculiarly adapted to its mode upright 238 

°* 'Iff. — , - . — 7 77 ^ Beasts of prey, why do they 

Armadillo, how is it able to roar before they spring on 

capture ants, although it is their victim 215 

* unprovided with an extensile Beavers, why have they remark" 

tongue _ 418 ably broad and thin tails___ 375 

Armadillos, why has the num- Beavers, why are their tails 

ber of, increased in the col- without fur 376 

onies . 419 Beavers, why are their incisor 

Armadillos, why do Indians as- ^ teeth remarkably developed 377 

viii 



INDEX. 



Beavers, the peculiar habits o! 

Beavers, why are the hind feet 
better adapted for swimming 
than the front 

Beavers, why do they build 
their dams straight and ob- 
lique 

Beaver-hats, why called "cas- 
tors" 

Bee-eaters, why so called 

Behemoth, of scripture, identity 
with the hippopotamus 

Belidens, why does the long 
tailed, seldom descend to the 
ground 

Bimana 

Bimana, why man only included 
in the order 

Birds, insectivorous, uses of 

Birds, why is the second order 
called incessores 

Birds, why is the third order 
called scansores 

Birds, why is the fourth order 
called gyratores 

Birds, why is he fifth order 
called rasores 

Birds, why is the sixth order 
called cursores 

Birds, why is the seventh order 
called grallatores 

Birds, why is the eighth order 
called natatores 

Birds, why is the first order 
called accipetres 

Birds of prey, why they build 
their nests upon rocks 

Birds of prey, why the legs and 
thighs of, are shorter than 
those of others 

Birds of prey, why destitute of 
song 

Birds of prey, why some destined 
to eat carrion 

Birds of prey, instance of their 
voracity 

Birds, why the eyes of those 
which prey by night are larger 
than those of others 

Birds of paradise, why so called 

Birds of paradise, why supposed 
to be suspended in air 

Birds of paradise, plumage of 

Birds of paradise, how is the 
profuse plumage of, useful 

Birds, why do they swallow 
stones, shells, gravel, etc. 

Birds, action of their digestive 
organs 

Birds, how do gallinaceous, re- 
semble ruminating animals 

Birds, why do gallinaceous, lay 
and hatch upon the ground 

Birds, why are the legs of gal- 



378 linaceous, soon developed 860 

Birds, why do short-tailed throw 

their legs behind when flying 892 

379 Birds, why have fish-eaters no 

crop 893 

Birds, why are their necks long 

380 and moveable 994 

Birds, peculiarities in the bills 

381 of 906 

793 Birds, why are aquatic, able to 

emerge from water perfectly 

454 dry 923 

Birds, why do the old ones pre- 
cede the young ones in migra- 
346 tion _ _ 943 

167 Birds, by what circumstance is 

their migration governed 944 

168 Birds, why, when flying in 
220 flocks, do they arrange them- 
selves into a triangular body 946 

684 Birds, why do those, which take 

long flights, fly high 947 

694 Birds, why have those, which 
winter out of England, black 

833 down under their feathers 949 

Birds, why are those, brought to 
854 England from distant regions 

hard-billed 951 

874 Birds, why have some, extreme- 
ly hard bills 952 

888 Birds, why do they lay eggs__ 953 
Birds'-eggs, why do they contain 

918 white and yolk 954 

Birds'-eggs, incubation of, de- 

647 scribed 955 

Birds, why have young ones a 

648 hard scaly substance on their 
beaks 956 

Birds' egg, description of the 

649 .shell 957 

Birds, why can recently hatched 

651 chicks exist without food 958 

Birds' eggs, why does the num- 

653 .ber vary 960 

Birds, why do they select silk, 

654 cotton, wool, fur, etc., for 
nests 961 

Birds' nests, how built and pre- 
672 pared 962 

765 Birds' nests, why are their ma- 

terials varied 964 

766 Birds' nests, why are some 

767 warmer than others 965 

Birds, why will they hesitate if 

768 observed while building nests 967 

Birds, why do some, require the 

parents' care longer than oth- 

g56 ers 969 

Birds, why do the male parents 
g57 evince ah exceptional fond- 
ness for their offspring 970 

859 Birds, structure of .their heads 

and necks 995 



INDEX. 



Birds, why does the breast- 
bone form an important part 
of their organization 996 

Birds, why is the gizzard an 

important organ 998 

Birds, why do they moult 1000 

Birds, why are the smaller spe- 
cies numerous and widely dif- 
fused 972 

Birds, why have they distinct 
voices 974 

Birds, why is the plumage of 
females more somber than of 
males 976 

Birds, why is their plumage 

somber when young 977 

Birds, what provision is illus- 
trated in the disposition of 
their feathers 979 

Birds, how is their varied plum- 
age accounted for 980 

Birds, how do they maintain a 
standing position 982 

Birds, why do many roost upon 
one leg 984 

Birds, why do their beaks indi- 
cate their peculiar food 985 

Birds, why are their eyes 
adapted to any range of sight 987 

Birds, why does their hearing 
mainly depend upon the in- 
ternal structure of the organ 989 

Birds, why do they perch with 
their faces to the wind 990 

Birds, how are they able to 
sleep securely when perched 
on the branches of trees 992 

Bison, why able to use its horns 
with more effect than the ox 530 

Bittern, why are its habits lit- 
tle known 914 

Bittern, mode of squatting de- 
scribed 915 

Bleak, why called the water- 
swallow 1031 

Bleeding, why when the opera- 
tion is performed, are the 
veins bound . 77 

Blindness, a person cured of 118 

Blindness, sensibility of touch 
in cases 157 

Blood, how formed 69 

Blood, the composition of 70 

Blood, how circulated and puri- 
fied 71 

Blood, illustration of the heart's 

action 72 

Blood, why so important an 

agent in animal economy 73 

Blood, the circulation of 74 

Bloodshot, why does the eye 
become 128 

Bloodhounds, why efficacious in 
the pursuit of fugitives 266 



Bodies, animal, why they vary 
most in the center 16 

Bones, why covered with peri- 
osteum 43 

Bones, the distinct and mutual 
uses of 45 

Bones, softness of, in infancy 46 

Bones, cylindrical 47 

Bones, why do they not touch 57 

Bones, why covered with car- 
tilage 67 

Bower-bird, why so called 692 

Bower-bird habits of — . 693 

Brain, the composition of 89 

Brain, functions of the great and 
small 90 

Brain, why not injured by the 
movement of the spine 91 

Breathing, why it causes the 
chest to heave 86 

Breathing, offices of the ribs and 
diaphragm 87 

Buffaloes, why the horns of, are 
useful to the' animal 528 

Bull-frog, how does it produce 
a noise 1030 

Butcher-bird, why so called — 689 

Camel, difference between it and 
the dromedary 513 

Camel, why so called 514 

Camel, why is its neck long and 
flexible 516 

Camel, why is the formation of 
the stomach of, adapted for 
long journeys over deserts — 519 

Camel, why have its feet large 
cushions 521 

Camel, how are its eyes pro- 
tected 522 

Camel, adaptation of its teeth 
for food 522 

Canary, the plumage of 763 

Canine teeth, why are carniv- 
orous animals provided with 206 

Carnaria, why is the third di- 
vision of the Mammalia so 
called 183 

Carnaria, why is the first sub- 
order called cheiroptera 184 

Carnaria, why is the second sub- 
order called insectivora 192 

Carnaria, why is the third sub- 
order called carnivora 205 

Carnivora, why is the third sub- 
order of carnaria so called 205 

Carnivorous animals, why have 
they canine teeth 206 

Carnivorous animals, why are 
their molar teeth fitted into 
each other 207 

Carnivora, how does their an- 
atomy adapt itself to their 
modes of life 208 

Carnivorous animals, why are 



INDEX. 



the pupils of their eyes vari- 
ously shaped 216 

Carnivorous animals, why in- 
cluded in all the natural 
classes 219 

Cartilage 66 

Catalepsy — 1(T7 

Cat-bird, why so named 694 

Gats, why when playing do they 
turn on their backs and seize 
with their claws 223 

Cats, why does cropping their 
ears prevent their climbing 
trees 224 

Cats, why does their fur emit 
electrical sparks 227 

Cats, purpose served by their 
electricity 227 

Cats, why are they uneasy pre- 
vious to a storm 228 

Cats, by what means are they 
enabled to extend or with- 
draw their talons 229 

Cats, why do they refuse vege- 
table food 231 

Cats, why do they lap fluids 
slowly 232 

Cats, why said to have "nine 
lives" 233 

Cats, why have they great diffi- 
culty in masticating vegetables 302 

Cattle, why is it customary in 
Switzerland to bell their 
necks 543 

Cattle, why when flying from 
the hunter do they keep to 
the sides of copses 549 

Cattle, why, when wild meditate 
an attack do they approach in 
circles 550 

Cattle, why is the hair of tame, 
softer and smoother than that 
of wild 552 

Cattle, why are the horns of 
tame, generally shorter than 
those of wild * 554 

Cattle, why do wild, feed in 
herds 556 

Cattle, why when feeding 3o 
they scatter, and graze sepa- 
rately 556 

Caucasian, why is the race so 
called 2 

Cetacea 577 

Cetacea, habits and structure of 578 

Cetacea, why separated from 
fishes 579 

Chaetodons, why are they so 
brilliantly colored 1106 

Chameleon, why has it the 
power of changing its color 1014 

Cheeks, why do they turn pale 
or red through fear or rage 79 

Cheek, why is a pale one an in- 



dication of disease : 80 

Chest, why does it heave when 
we breathe 86 

Cheiroptera 184 

Chelonia, why is the first order 
of reptiles so called 1002 

Chinche, animals with an offen- 
sive smell 248 

Chondrostea, why is the second 

sub-order of ganoidea so called 1123 

Civet, why called the civet cat 319 

Civet perfume, how is it pro- 
duced 320 

Classification of animals, why 
adopted 161 

Classification of animals, signifi- 
cation of terms in 162 

Classification of animals, prin- 
ciples of 325 

Climbing animals, how is the 
supply of blood in the legs 
of, regulated 412 

Coati, why does it burrow be- 
neath trees 234 

Cockatoos, why so called 815 

Cod, why does it abound on the 
Newfoundland coast 1091 

Cold, why does it purple the 
skin • 35 

Cold, why does moderate, stim- 
ulate the system 78 

Conirostres, why is the sub- 
order so named 726 

Conirostres, why are the heads 

of, disproportionately large 728 

Cormorant peculiarity in the 
structure of its foot 936 

Coughing, why does it increase 
headache 81 

Coursing, why are two dogs em- 
ployed 263 

Cow, anecdote of a 544 

Cow, why has it four or more 
teats 547 

Cows, management of the teats 
of when sucking 548 

Coypou, why, though identical 
with the beaver in habits, has 
it a dissimilar tail 382 

Creeper, why are its feet long 
and powerful 780 

Crocodile, why does it allow the 
zic-zac to be familiar with it 1009 

Crocodile, why do both of its 
jaws move 1011 

Crows, why erroneous to sup- 
pose that they destroy grass 763 

Crossbill, why is the beak of, 
peculiarly constructed 749 

Crows, why said that they can 
smell gunpowder 741 

Crows, why wrong to destroy 
them 744 



INDEX. 



Cuckoo, why does it deposit 
eggs in nests of other birds 821 

Cuckoo, why does it drop its 
eggs in the nests of smaller 
birds _— — 822 

Cuckoo, why does it deposit its 
eggs in the nests of sparrows, 
wagtails, etc 823 

Cuckoo, why does it deposit its 
eggs with its foot 825 

Cuckoo, why does it cause in- 
jury to the eggs of other birds 826 

Cuckoos, why do they perch on 
the backs of oxen while graz- 
ing 1 827 

Cursores, why is the order so 
named 973 

Cuticle, why is it slightly rough 33 

Cuticle, special provisions for, 
in various parts of the body 34 

Cuvier, anecdote of 646 

Cyclostomata, why is the sec- 
ond sub-order of fishes so 

_ called 1039 

Deaf persons, why do they place 

a hand behind their ears 148 

Deaf persons, why do they hear 
more readily if addressed in a 
moderate tone 149 

Deer, why furnished with sup- 
plementary breathing organs 536 

Dentirosties, why is the sub- 
order so called 686 

Diaphragm 87 

Dog and wolf, points of similar- 
ity between 253 

Dog and wolf, why a .difference 
in the pupils of their eyes 225 

Dogs, why may it be supposed 
that all the varieties of, 
spring from a common origin 256 

Dogs, influence of climate upon 257 

Dogs, Isle of, why so called 258 

Dogs, why are two employed in 
coursing 263 

Dogs, why should those used for 
sport be kept to their own 

game 265 

* Dogs, why is their sense of 

smell acute 268 

Dogs, why do they lose their 
scent of game-birds during in- 
cubation 269 

Dogs, why do those used for 

sport make "a point" 270 

Dogs, what is the scent of 272 

Dogs, why is a moist atmo- 
sphere best for scent 274 

Dogs, why is a wet day unfavor- 
able for scent 276 

Dogs, why is there little scent 
when the ground is hard and 
dry 277 

Dogs, why does scent sometimes 



lie breast high 278 

Dogs, why does scent rarely fie 

with a north or east wind 279 

Dogs, why is scent generally 
good when the *wind is south- 
erly, of dogs .j 2S1 

Dogs, why does humidity favor 
scent 282 

Dogs, why is scent seldom good 

when cobwebs hang on bushes 283 

Dogs, why will scent sometimes 
be good in a hard rain and 
mild air 284 

Dogs, why is scent destroyed by 
sudden storms : 285 

Dogs, why is scent not good on 

sunshiny days , 862 

Dogs, why is scent good on a 
warm day without sunshine 287 

Dogs, why does scent lie badly 
upon fallows and beaten roads 288 

Dogs, why is scent good by 
hedgerows " 289 

Dogs, why does scent differ in 
various breeds 290 

Dog, why is the Newfoundland, 

of greatest service to man 293 

Dog, anecdote of a Newfound- 
land 294 

Dogs, why do they toss their 
heads when masticating a 
tough substance 295 

Dogs, why are the habits of the 
shepherd's, the result of edu- 
cation rather than instinct 296 

Dogs, how may they be taught 
to perform tricks with cards 298 

Dogs, why frightened at lame 
and stooping persons 299 

Dogs, why do they turn round 
several times before lying 
down 300 

Dogs, why should their treat- 
ment be regulated by moral 
influence 301 

Dogs, why have they difficulty 
in masticating vegetable sub- 
stances 302 

Dog, Tyke the fire-dog 304 

Dog, restoring a piece of hidden 

money to his master 305 

Dog, memory and gratitude of a 306 

Dog, acting as constable 307 

Dog's revenge 308 

Dog, clemency of a Newfound- 
land 309 

Dog, Highland cur performing 

the part of a detective^. 310 

Dog philanthropists 311 

Dogs, influence of domestication 
upon £. 601 

Dog, a stratagem to obtain food 624 

Dolphin, why has its shape been 

misrepresented 589 



INDEX. 



Dolphin, why does it utter a 
sound resembling the human 
voice 591 

Dolphins, why have they the 
flat surface of their tails placed 
horizontally 597 

Dormouse, why does it become 
flat during the period of hyber- 
nation 360 

Doves, why do they prefer arti- 
ficial pigeon houses 844 

Dromedary, the difference be- 
tween it and the camel 533 

Dromedary, why so called 541 

Dromedary, why has it a hump 
on its back 517 

Dromedary, why is stomach of, 
adapted for the journeys over 
deserts 519 

Ducks, why are they assiduous 

in trimming their feathers 924 

Ducks, why do they appear 

pleased at the approach of rain 926 

Duck, why is its bill peculiarly 
sensitive 927 

Eagle, why a courageous bird 655 

Eagle, why is it called the king 
of birds 662 

Eagles, why cannot they attack 
prey directly under them 663 

Eagle, the white-headed 664 

Eagles, why are they some times 
found dead, and fastened to 
fish 665 

Eagles, why are the eyes of, for- 
nished with nictating mem- 
branes 666 

Eagles, why do they drive away 
their young 668 

Eagles, why. are the wings of 
broad and concave 669 

Eagles, why are the wings of, 
shorter than those of the 
falcon 670 

Ears, why are both used to de- 
termine the^ direction of sound 146 

Ears, why so~metimes both, and 
at other times only one, used 
to distinguish sounds 147 

Ear, how does a hand placed 
behind it operate 148 

Edentata, why is the sixth order 
of animals so named 402 

Elephant, why furnished with a 
proboscis 432 

Elephant, why is the trunk of, 
capable of a great variety of 
motions 434 

Elephants, various functions the 
trunk is able to perform 4'35 

Elephant, why provided with 
tusks 436 

Elephants, why are the eyes of, 
small 438 



Elephant why are the ears of, 
large 439 

Elephant, peculiar anatomical 
structure of the ear 440 

Elephant, why does it use its 
trunk to seize a man and not 
to attack a tiger 441 

Elephant why has it the power 
of bending the hind leg for- 
ward 443 

Elephant, docility and intelli- 
gence of 444 

Elephant, protecting the sick 
and dying 445 

Elephant, going to a hospital 
•to have its wounds dressed 446 

Elephant, affection of, for its 

species 447 

Elephant, revenge of 448 

Elephant, sagacity of 449 

Elk, why is its neck so short 534 

Ethiopian, why is the race so 
called 4 

Eye, why do the powers of 
vision greatly depend on me- 
chanical exercise 113 

Eye, the operation of in view- 
ing objects 115 

Eye, why is the motion of, essen- 
tial to vision 116 

Eye, why do the powers of, de- 
pend on development 117 

Eye, why does the pupil of, con- 
tract and dilate 121 

Eye, chamber of 122 

Eye, why unable to discern ob- 
jects when passing from strong 
light into darkness 123 

Eye, why inconvenienced when 
emerging from darkness into 
light 124 

Eye, why is the pupil of, so 
called 125 

Eye, why is it sometimes blood- 
shot 128 

Eye, why does it lose its luster 
in old age and sickness 131 

Eye, what occasions squinting 132 

Eye, why does it perceive colors 134 

Eye, why does a blow produce 
a flash of light 136 

Eyeball, sensitiveness of, how ac- 
counted for 137 

Eye, why cannot it distinguish 
minute objects when immersed 
in water . 138 

Eyes, why furnished with lashes 139 

Eyes, why protected by eye- 
brows 141 

Eyes, why furnished with eyelTds 142 

Eyelid, why the motions of, in- 
voluntary 143 



INDEX. 



Eyes of carnivorous animals, 
why are the pupils variously 
shaped . 216 

Eyes of animals, why do they 
glare in darkness 221 

Eyes of animals, why do they 
not glisten in the daylight — . 222 

Fairy-rings, why supposed to be 
caused by moles 199 

Falcon, why are its wings larger 

than those of the eagle 670 

Falcon, why is the optic nerve in 
its eye folded into plaits 671 

Fat, why necessary to the system 36 

Fat, economy of -_ 37 

Fear, why does it cause pale 
cheeks 79 

Feet, how are the nails formed 29 

Ferrets, why dangerous to keep 250 

Feline animals, why when a per- 
son is struck by, should he 
not move i. 211 

Ferret, why has the Nubian, 
valves to its ears 314 

Fingers, peculiar functions of 22 

Fingers, why are their extrem- 
ites soft and round 24 

Fingers, why are they of unequal 
length 25 

Fingers, why are the tops of, 

guarded by cushions 26 

Fingers, why furnished with 
nails 27 

Fishes, why is the first order of, 
called leptocardia 1038 

Fishes, why is the second order 
of, called clyclostomata 1039 

Fishes, why is the third order 
of, called teleostia : 1044 

Fishes, why do their spinous de- 
fensive weapons turn back- 
wards , 1104 

Fishes, why are some furnished 
with a sucker 1111 

Fishes, why is the fourth order 
named ganoidea 112J 

Fishes, why is the fifth order 
called selachia 1124 

Fishes, how is their breathing 
conducted 1131 

Fishes, why is their flesh white 1132 

Fishes, why do they not masti- 
cate their food 1133 

Fishes, why are their teeth 
curved inwards 1134 

Fishes, why do they gasp when 
out of water 1135 

Fishes, why can some live long 
out of water 1136 

Fishes, why are the crystalline 
lenses of their eyes round__ 1137 

Fishes, why do they lie with 
their heads against the stream 1139 

Fishes, why do some swim at 



the surface, and others near 

the bottom 1143 

Fishes, why when they have 
broken away with a hook will 
they take another immediately 1144 

Fishes, why do their wounds 
rapidly heal ; 1146 

Fishes, why are they exempt 
from disease 1146 

Fishes, why the sub-order of 
anacanthina so called 1088 

Fishes, why do they float when 
dead 1094 

Fishes, why is the sub-order of 
physomata so named 1046 

Fishes, why may they be 
drowned while being caught 1147 

Fishes, why are the migrations 
of, beneficial 1149 

Fishes, why. do they spawn in 
shallow waters 1150 

Fissirostres, why so designated 711 

Flamingo, why when feeding does 
it hold its head and beak up- 
side dowwn Txx the water 899 

Flamingo, why does it make its 
nest on mound-like elevations 901 

Flat-fish, why do they float more 
than others 1095 

Fluids, their effect upon the 
body 40 

Flying squirrels, why so called 3$8 

Flying-fishes, why are they so 
called 1105 

Foot, why is the sole^ arched 19 

Fowls, why has the' cock a 
streaming tail 862 

Fowls, why have they become 
domesticated 863 

Fowls, why have they limited 
powers of flight 864 

Fowls, structure of their wings 
and feet 865 

Fowls, why do they roost in ele- 
vated places 866 

Fowls, why do they hustle them- 
selves in dust , 871 

Foxes, why are those found early 
in the day easily caught 292 

Foxes, why are they less easily 
caught than hares 388 

Frog, why does it keep its 
mouth shut when breathing 1027 

Frogs, how are the reported 
showers of, accounted for 1029 

Frogs, how is their croaking 
produced 1031 

Frogs, why are they frequently 
found dead in dusty roads 1032 

Game-birds, why do dogs lose 
their scent of them during the 
incubation 269 

Ganoidea, why is the fourth or- 
der of fishes so named 1121 



INDEX. 



Gar-fish, why called the mack- 
erel guide 1099 

Geese, why do they "waddle" 
in their walk 925 

Geese, why do, seemed pleased 
at the approach of rain 926 

Genus, what is the meaning of 163 

Giraffe, why does the lion wait 
for, in the neighborhood of 
water . 218 

Giraffe and kanguroo, locomo- 
tion contrasted 342 

Giraffe, why has it a small head 433 

Giraffe, why has it a long tongue 559 

Giraffe, enormous appetite of 560 

Giraffe, why is the head sur- 
mounted by short horns 561 

Giraffe, why are tfie nostrils 

thickly intersected with hairs 563 

Giraffe, why are the eyes set 
prominently near the back of 
the head 564 

Giraffe, why attacked by the 
lion when in the act of drink- 
ing 565 

Giraffe, why has it a long slen- 
der neck 557 

Globe-fish, what are its peculi- 
arities of structure and habit 1107 

Goats, why supposed that they 

improve the health of horses 567 

Goats, why can they subsist on 
vegetables which are poison- 
ous 568 

Goat-sucker, why has the mouth 

of, long bristly hairs 725 

Goldfinches, why do they build 
on flexible branches 761 

Gold-fish, how do they subsist 
apparently on water only 1085 

Gold-fish, why do they so fre- 
quently come to the surface 1087 

Goose, why is it considered a 
stupid bird 919 

Goose, why was it esteemed by 
the Romans 921 

Grallatores, why is the order so 
named 887 

Greyhound, why does it hunt by 
sight alone 259 

Greyhounds, why less attached 
to their masters than other 
dogs Is 262 

Greyhound, why should the neck 
of, be long , 261 

Guinea-fowls, why have their 
eggs hard shells 870 

Gums, why well fitted to re- 
ceive teeth 94 

Gurnards, why are the Indian, 
called flying-fishes 1105 

Gymnotus, why has it the power 
of giving electric shocks 1048 

Gyratores, why is the order so 



called 832 

Hair, why an appropriate cover- 
ing for the head 38 

Hamster, why has it enormous 

cheek pouches 371 

Hamster, peculiar habits of 372 

Hand, why the most important 
member 20 

Hand, why divided into several 

parts 21 

Hands, why do they incline to- 
wards each other 23 

Hands, why are the palms 
guarded by cushions 26 

Hare-lip, why, when divided, is 
the lip- so called 396 

Hares, why, when pursued, do 

they make for rising ground 384 

Hares, why do they run down 
hill zig-zag 385 

Hares, why are the hind legs of, 

long and powerful . 386 

Hares, why unable to run on 

fallows and wet soils 387 

Hares, why, though fleeter than 

foxes, are they sooner caught 388 

Hares, why lean, while rabbits 
are fat ^ 389 

Hares, great speed of 390 

Hares, why, in the young ones, 
is the cavity of the chest 
larger than the lungs 391 

Hares, why are the ears of, so 
long and capable of varied 
motion ■ 392 

Hares, what are habits and in- 
stincts of 393 

Hares, why do they make forms, 
while rabbits burrow 394 

Hares, why are persons said to 
be as mad as March hares 
when they are flighty 397 

Hare, why so called 398 

Hares, why do they leap to and 
fro before they jump upon 
their forms 399 

Hares, stratagems adopted by, 
to escape 400 

Hares, why are the eyes of, 
never closed 401 

Head, why covered with hair 38 

Head, formation of, in idocy 55 

Head, why are the senses placed 
in 112 

Headache, why increased by 
coughing 81 

Hearing, the process of 144 

Hearing, why is that of infants 
indistinct 145 

Hearing, why both ears are used 
to determine the direction of 
sound 146 



INDEX. 



Hearing, why sometimes one ear 
and otherwise both called into 
action 147 

Hearing, why made easier to 
deaf persons by a moderate 
tone of voice _. 149 

Hearing, how facilitated by plac- 
ing a ticking watch upon the 
teeth 150 

Heart, its action 72 

Heart, insensibility of 109 

Heart, how is its position undis- 
turbed ..« Ill 

Hedgehog, why covered with 
spines . 203 

Hedgehog, what it chiefly preys 
upon 204 

Heel, why projecting 56 

Herbivorous, animals why do 
they chew the cud 508 

Herons, why have they cumbrous 
wings 913 

Herring, why so called . 1050 

Herrings, why do they migrate 1051 

Herrings, why do they swim in 
shoals 1053 

Herrings, why are few caught in 
the cold months 1052 

Herring, in what does it differ 
from the pilchard 1056 

Hervio Nano, exploits of, de- 
scribed 650 

Hip-joint, mechanism of 51 

Hippopotamus, why so called 450 

Hippopotamus, why do the wa- 
ters bubble when it dives 451 

Hippopotamus, why has it large 
teeth 452 

Hippopotamus, what are its of- 
fices in rivers 453 

Hippopotamus, identity with the 

behemoth 454 

Hippopotamus, why does it 
walk awkwardly 455 

Hippopotamus, why called the 
"river-horse" 457 

Hippopotamus, how are the eyes 
and nostrils adapted to its 
habits 458 

Hippopotamus, faculty of living 
under water 458 

Hogs,, why have they thick 
necks 468 

Hog, Indian, why furnished with 
crooked tusks 469 

Hogs, functions of the tusks 469 

Hogs, why when two are feeding 
will one of them have his foot 
in the trough 472 

Holocephala, why is the first 
sub-order of selachia so called 1125 

Holostea, why is the first sub- 
order of ganoidea so called 1122 

Hoopoe, why so named 787 



Horns of animals, growth, struc- 
ture, and uses 526 

Horses, wild, why they congre- 
gate in flocks 477 

Horses, why are the colors and 
marks of, varied 478 

Horses, why whejn two are in a 
pasture does one nibble the 
shoulder of the other — 480 

Horses, why furnished with 
strong hairs on the lips 482 

Horses, why does a prevalence 
of "white" in the eye indicate 
a vicious temper 483 

Horses, why without eyebrows 484 

Horses, how are the eyes pro- 
tected 485 

Horses, why is the form of the 
racer fitted for running 486 

Horses, varied forms and points 
of 487 

Horses, why have they large 
square jaws 488 

Horses, why does a heavy shoul- 
der indicate slowness and 
stumbling T 489 

Horses, why are those with deep 
bellies best for labor 490 

Horses, capabilities of the Suf- 
folk punch 491 

Horses, why without gall- 
bladders 492 

Horses, why have aged ones 
cavities above their eyes ' 493 

Horses, how may the age be 
judged 494 

Horses, why should the grain on 
which they are fed be crushed 495 

Horses, why when early and 
hard worked do they never ar- 
rive at full size ._ 496 

Horses, why will they find their 
way in the dark without guide 
or check 497 

Horses, instinct and' intelligence 
of, in the dark 498 

Horses, why is Mr. Rarey's sys- 
tem of taming so efficacious 499 

Horses, system of taming pur- 
sued by Mr. Rarey explained 500 

Horses, why is the health of, 
supposed to be improved 
when goats are kept in the 
stables 567 

Hounds, packs of, mode of pur- 
suing the hare 260 

Humming-birds, why motionless 
in the air 772 

Humming-birds, why so called 773 

Humming-birds, flight of 774 

Humming-birds, why do they fly 
at the eyes of their adversaries 775 

Humming-birds, why are the 
nests of warm 777 



INDEX. 



Humming-birds, why is their long 755 

plumage gorgeous 778 Lark, what use are its long 

Hunting, why is it an instinctive claws 757 

sport among men 599 Lemmings, why do they migrate 

Hybernating animals, why are from their settlements 373 

they enabled to live through- Lemmings, what are the peculiar 

out the winter without food habits of 374 

or motion 406 Lemurs, why are they included 

Hyenas, why are they denom- i« the same order with mon- 

inated scavengers 316 keys 180 

Idiocy, form of the head char- Lemurs, why so called 181 

acteristic of 55 Leopard, why so called 321 

Incessores, why so named 684 Leopard, distinction between it 

Incessores, also called passeres 685 and the panther 322 

Infants, why is milk when mixed Leptocardia, why is the first or- 

with water most suitable for 102 der of fishes so called 1038 

Infants, why is the hearing of, Ligaments 68 

indistinct 145 Linnet, why is the female mis- 

Insecta 164 taken for the male 759 

Insectivora, why is the second Lions, why provided with large 

sub-order of carnaria so called 192 manes 209 

Insectivorous birds, useful of- Lion, why termed king of the 

fices of 220 forest 210 

Instinct, differs from reason 618 Lion, encounter with 212 

Internal organs, why concealed Lion, why is the tongue of, 

from sight 104 rough 214 

Invertebrata 166 Lion, why does he wait for the 

Isle of Dogs, why so called 258 giraffe in the neighborhood of 

Jacana, why has it toes of ex- water 218 

traordinary length 911 Lion, why does it attack the 

Jacana, why has it sharpened giraffe when in the act of 

spurs on the corner of each drinking 566 

wing 912 Lip, why is it an indication of 

Jackal, why is it called "the disease when blanched 80 

lion's provider" 312 Liver, how are its functions per- 

Jackal, track of, followed by formed 88 

the tiger 313 Liver, how does it maintain its 

Jack, why are the fins nearest position in the body 111 

its gills continually moving 1141 Lizards, why is the monitor so 

Jack, why are pike so called— 1073 called 1037 

John Dory, why so called 1110 Llama, wjiy are the toes of, sep- 

Joints, why can they bear so arated and pointed 524 

much use 48 Lophobranchia, why is the fifth 

Joints, peculiarities in the struc' sub-order of fishes so named 1113 

ture 49 Love-birds, why named 829 

Ranguroos, why included in the Lump-fish, peculiar habits of 1112 

order of marsupialia 336 Lungs 82 

Kanguroo, why has it powerful Lungs, how do they indicate 

posterior organs 341 whether an infant has been 

Kanguroo and giraffe, locomotion born alive or dead 84 

contrasted . 342 Lungs, of their earliest action 85 

Kanguroo, why is its bounding Lungs, how do theyj-etain iheir 

movements adapted to its hab- position in the body 111 

its 343 Macaws, why so named 806 

Kanguroos, why are their heads Magpie, adapted for either a 

and fore-paws small 345 tree or ground bird 746 

Kingfisher, how is its bill Magpies, why called pilfering 

adapted for obtaining food 790 birds 747 

Kingfishers, why have they small Magpie, why does one alone 

feet 792 portend bad weather 748 

Knee-pan, prominence of 50 Malay, why is the race so called 6 

Lamprey, why has it a cartila- Mammalia 164 

ginous mouth 1042 Man, what are the principal 

Lark, why is the hind claw so varieties of the human race 1 



INDEX. 



Man, why is one of the types 
called Caucasian 

Man, why is one of the types 
called Mongolian 

Man, why is one of the types 
called Ethiopian 

Man, why is one of the types 
called American . 

Man, why is one of the types 
called Malay 7--- 

Man, why have the primitive 
types retained their character- 
istics 

Man, why are there so many 
different complexions 

Man, how are various habits 
and modes of life accounted 
for 

Man, how distinguished from 
" lower animals 

Man, why do we know that the 
varieties have sprung from 
one original 

Man, why is his face adapted 
to the errect attitude 

Man, why is he only included 
in the order bimana 

Man, why is his »omnivorous 
character beneficial to the 
lower creation . 

Man, how is he enabled to influ- 
ence the forms and qualities 
of various animals 

Mane, why have lions a large 

March-hares, why are persons 
said to be as mad as March 
hares when they are flighty 

Marsupiala, why are kanguroos, 
opossums, etc., included in the 
order of 

Marsupialia, why are they pro- 
vided with pouches 

Marsupialia, why are the young 
born in a helpless condition 

Marsupialia, peculiar gestation of 

Martins, why appointed a dis- 
tinct range of elevation 

Membrane, why is there none 
enclosing the skull 

Mice, why are a small number 
beneficial in a house 

Milk, why suitable for infants 

Milk, properties of various kinds 

Mocking-bird, why so called 

1 Molar teeth, why are those of 
carnivorous animals fitted into 
each other _ 

Mole, how adopted to its mode 
of life 

Moles, comparsion of, with bats 

Moles, why beneficial to farmers 

Moles, why supposed to have no 
eyes 

Moles, why have they elongated 



muzzles 198 

2 Moles, why supposed to occasion 

"fairy-rings" 199 

3 Moles, why are their collar- 

bones long and thick 200 

4 Mole, why when a female is 

trapped is the male frequently 

5 found dead __ 201 

Mollusca 165 

6 Mongolian, why is the race so 

called 3 

Monkeys, why are they de- 

7 scribed as four-handed 170 

Monkeys, why divided into 

8 those of the old world and 

the new 173 

Monkeys, why combined to cer- 

10 tain geographical limits 174 

Monkeys, how are their imi- 

11 tative propensities employed 175 
Monkeys, imitative propensities 176 
Monkeys, why have some long 

12 tails 177 

Monkeys, their locomotive pow- 

14 ers 178 

Monkeys, why is the "preach- 

168 er" so called __ 179 

Monkeys, why are lemurs in- 
cluded in the same order 180 

598 Monkey and crow 182 

Mosquitoes, why do their move- 
ments betray armadillos 420 

600 Mules, why said to be stubborn 503 

209 Mules, sagacity of, in traveling 504 

Muscles, what are the uses of 45 

Muscle 58 

397 Muscles, offices of various 59 

Muscles, why are they of nu- 
merous forms and attitudes 61 

336 Muscles, action of 62 

Muscles, why separated from 

337 surrounding parts 64 

Musk, odor of 273 

339 Nails, why are the fingers fur- 

340 nished with 27 

Nails of hands and feet, how 

712 formed 29 

Nails, peculiar structure of 30 

53 Natatores, why is the order so 

called 916 

361 Natatores, why are they some- 

102 times called "palmipedes" 918 

103 Nerevs, what are they 60 

690 Nests, why are those of birds 

of prey built on lofty and 

barren rocks 648 

207 Newfoundland dog, anecdote of 294 
Newfoundland dog, clemency of 309 

193 Nictating membrane, what is it 667 

194 Nocturnal birds, why are they 

195 very large 673 

Nocturnal birds, why are their 

197 eyes placed near each other 674 

Nocturnal birds, why do their 



INDEX. 



eyes contain a shining sub- 
stance - 675 

Nocturnal birds, why is their 
plumage tapered off to a point 681 

Nuthatch, why has it a short 
tail 782 

Nuthatch, method of procuring 
food 783 

Nuthatch, why does it make its 
nest in decayed trees 784 

Ocelot, why so called 323 

Onaga, why is it found in hilly 

and mountainous places 505 

Ophidea, why is the third order 
of reptiles so called — 1017 

Opossums, why are they in- 
cluded in the order of mar- 
supialia 336 

Organs, deep-seated, how do we 
know that they are divested 
of feeling 108 

Organs, internal, why do they 
retain their places in the body 110 

Ornythorynchus-, why so called 426 

Ornythorynchus, why is it pro- 
vided with a duck-like ap- 
pendage 427 

Ostrich, why is it the swiftest 
of animals 875 

Ostrich, why are its digestive 
organs so powerful 876 

Ostrich, why does the hen con- 
tinue to lay while incubating 877 

Ostrich, why does the hen aban- 
don her nest for a long 
period 879 

Ostrich, why is it said to be a 
neglectful mother 881 

Ostrich, why does its foot re- 
semble that of the camel 883 

Ostrich, why has it small and 
light wings 885 

Otters, why when hunting fish 
do they swim against the 
stream 252 

Ouzel, the nest of 70D 

Oven-bird, why so called 830 

Owls, why able to turn their 
heads round in a circle 676 

Owl, why is its head large 677 

Owls, peculiar provision of their 
ears ________ 678 

Owls, why is their flight feeble 679 

Owls, why wrong to destroy 
them 680 

Ox, why is it one of the most 
valuable and useful beasts__ 538 

Ox, why does the sight of blood 
and of red colors infuriate it 540 

Oxen, why do they frequently 
stand in shallow water during 
hot weather 541 

Oxen, why have they a licking 
motion with the tongue when 



grazing 542 

Oxen, why so easily and uni- 
versally domesticated 545 

Oxen, why have they divided 
hoofs 546 

Oxen, wild and tame, why a 
greater difference than between 
wild and tame sheep 575 

Oxen, acclimation of 539 

Pachydermata » 429 

Pachydermata ordinaria 431 

Pachydermata, how subdivided 431 

Palmipedes, why are birds of 
the order of natatores so 
called 918 

Panthers, hearing very acute 213 

Panther, distinction between, 
and the' leopard 322 

Papillae 31 

Paroquettes, why so called 811 

Paroquettes, why numerous in 
America 812 

Parrot, why is its bill thick and 
powerful 799 

Parrot, why is it able to use its 
bill with force and yet with 
rvicety 801 

Parrot, why has each species its 
peculiar residence 803 

Parrot, why are there marked 
differences in the forms of 
their feet 804 

Parrots, why are they natives 

of tropical climates 807 

Parrots, why do they suffer lit- 
tle from confinement 808 

Parrots, why do they clip and 
gnaw wood 809 

Parrot, what advantage results 
from the mobility of its upper 
mandible 810 

Parrot, why does it not con- 
struct a nest 813 

Parrot-fish, why so called 1100 

Parrot-fish, why has it rounded 
jaws and scale-like teeth 1101 

Passeres, why called also inces- 
sores 685 

Pelican, why has it a large 
pouch 942 

Petrels, why can they run on 
the surface of the water 938 

Pharyngonatha, why is the third 
sub-order of fishes so called 1096 

Pheasant, why does its plumage 
taper to a point 868 

Pheasants, why do they perch 
on larch trees 869 

Physomata, why is the sub-order 
of fishes -so named 1046 

Pigeons, why have they a puffed 

appearance at the breast 833 

Pigeons, how are young, fed by 
their parents -- 834 



INDEX. 



Pigeon, why is the plumage of 
the rock, close and compact 836 

Pigeons, why is their plumage 
of a somber hue 838 

Pigeons, how is their structure 
adapted to their powers of 
flight 839 

Pigeon, why does the rock, pre- 
fer a white-washed house 840 

Pigeon, why does the rock, walk 
upon the sea-beach 841 

Pigeon, why is the song of the 
ringed, only heard in spring 
and autumn 847 

Pigeons, why do they return to 
the place where they started 
from 848 

Pigeons, power of flight 849 

Pigeon, why is the flesh of the 
wild, less delicate and palat- 
able than that of the tame — 851 

Pigs, why do they run about 
with straws in their mouths 470 

Pigs, why is it said that they 
cut their throats when swim- 
ming 472 

Pike, why do they appear in 
ponds where none were before 1070 

Pike, why is their presence 
courted and shunned by smal- 
ler fish 1071 

Pike, why does it undergo a 
state of torpidity .1072 

Pike, why also called jack 1073 

Pike, why is it voracious at cer- 
tain seasons 1074 

Pilchard, why are few caught in 
the cold months 1055 

Pilchards, in what does it differ 
from the herring 1056 

Pisces, what are they . 164 

Plagiostomata, why is the sec- 
ond sub-order of selachia so 
called 1127 

Plectognatha, why is the sub- 
order of fishes so called 1118 

Pointer, attitudes of, in pursuit 
of game ' 271 

Polecat, what gave rise to the 
saying of "stinking like a 
polecat" 247 

Porcupine, why covered with 
quills 383 

Pores of the skin, to health 101 

Porpoise, why said to roll 593 

Porpoise, why so named 595 

Porpoise, why thought to fore- 
tell a storm 596 

Proboscidea, what is the mean- 
ing of the term of 431 

Pupil of eye, why so called 125 

Quadrumana , 169 

Quadrumana, why are monkeys 
included in the order of 170 



Quadrupeds, why are the larg- 
est, 'found in Africa 606 

Quadrupeds, why are the larger, 
less prolific than other spe- 
cies 610 

Quadrupeds, why are the feet of 
small ' 617 

Quadrupeds, why have some, a 
mixed coating of hair and 
wool 640 

Rabbits, why do they burrow, 
while hares make forms 394 

Rabbits, why are they fat, while 
hares are lean 389 

Radiata 165 

Rage, why does it redden the 
cheeks 79 

Rarey, Mr., why is his system 
of taming • horses efficacious 499 

Rasores, why is this order so 
named 853 

Rats, why beneficial 362 

Rat, why is the tail long 365 

Rats, why said that they "al- 
ways quit a falling house" 367 

Rats, why said that they "leave 
a sinking ship" 368 

Ratting, why is shifting from 
one party to another so 
termed _. 369 

Rats communicate with each 
other * 370 

Rattlesnake, why has it a rattle 1023 

Raven, characteristics of its bill 730 

Raven, habits and instincts of 731 

Raven, why termed the herald 
of the year 732 

Raven,,, why associated with 
sickness and misfortune 733 

Ravens, why more social than 

birds of prey 735 * 

Ray, why has it a long tail 
armed with spines 1130 

Reason differs from instinct__ 618 

Redbreast, why a solitary bird 701 

Redbreast, why the latest bird 
in the evening 703 

Redbreast, why called an au- 
tumnal songster 704 

Redbreast, why associated with 
"the wren 705 

Reindeer, structure adapted to 
climate 532 

Reindeer, its horns of assistance 
in procuring food 533 

Reindeer, why are its feet deep- 
ly fissured 538 

Reptiles, why the largest in 
America 606 

Reptilia 1002 

Reptiles, why are they so named 1003 

Reptiles, w «y is the first order 
of, called chclonia 1002 



INDEX. 



Reptiles, why is the second or- 
der of, called sauria 1008 

Reptiles, why is the third or- 
der termed ophidia 1017 

Reptiles, why is the fourth or- 
der of, called amphibia 1026 

Reptiles, why have they a move- 
able lid at their nostrils 1035 

Reptiles, why can they abstain 
for a long time from food and 
drink 1036 

Reptiles, why are they termed 
cold-blooded 1037 

Rhinoceros, why so called 459 

Rhinoceros, why provided with 
horny appendages 460 

Rhinoceros, functions of the 
horn 461 

Rhinoceros, why the eyes placed 
low in the head 462 

Rhinoceros, why the ears of 
easy and quick motion 463 

Rhinoceros, why is the skin of 
in numerous folds 464 

Rhinoceros, Indian, structure of 465 

Ribs, the structure of 52 

Rifle-bird, why so called 785 

Ringdove, why does it feed 
greedily and become fat in 
the autumn 842 

Ringdoves, peculiar habits of 843 

Ringdove, why does its form 
change in the evening 850 

Roach, why when angling for, 
should the depths be tried— 1080 

Roach, why has it a small 
mouth without teeth 1082 

Rodentia 348 

Rodentia, teeth of 349 

Rodents, why are their jaws 
light 350 

Rook, why the earliest bird in 
the morning 737 

Rooks, why does the flight of, 
foretell the weather 738 

Rooks, shooting of 739 

Rooks, why do they repair their 
nests in autumn 740 

Rook, adaptations of the bill 
and stomach 743 

Rooks, why are they frequently 
accompanied by starlings 993 

Rope-dancing, why is the eye 
important in 120 

Ruminantia 507 

Ruminating animals, digestive 
organs explained 509 

Rumination, how conducted 510 

Ruminating animals, why Rave 
they cloven feet 512 

Ruminating animals, why are 
many furnished with horns 525 

Salmon, why do they arrive ear- 
lier in some rivers than in 



others 1063 

Salmon, why do female, ascend 
the rivers before the males 
when spawning 1064 

Salmon, why do they halt in 
brackish water 1066 

Salmon, why is the flesh red 1067 

Sand-eel, why has it a project- 
ing jaw 1090 

Sand-launce, why has it a pro- 
jecting jaw 1090 

Sauria, why is the order of rep- 
tiles so called 1008 

Savage tribes, how are the heads 
of, flattened 93 

Scansores, why is the third or- 
der of birds so termed 794 

Scansores, why also called zygo- 
dactyli 796 

Scent in dogs 272 

Scent, why is a moist atmo- 
sphere best for 274 

Scent, why is a wet day unfa- 
vorable for 276 

Scent, why is there little when 
the ground is hard and dry 277 

Scent, why does it sometimes lie 
breast high 278 

Scent, why does it rarely lie 
with a north or east wind 279 

Scent, state of, indicated by the 
manners and attitudes of dogs 280 

Scent, why good when the wind 
is southerly 281 

Scent, why does humidity favor 
its transmission 282 

Scent, why seldom good when 
cobwebs hang on bushes 283 

Scent, why will it sometimes be 
good in a hard rain and mild 
air 284 

Scent, why destroyed by sudden 
storms 285 

Scent, why not good on sun- 
shiny days 286 

Scent, why good on a warm day 
without sunshine 287 

Scent, why does it lie badly 
upon fallows and roads 288 

Scent,- why good by hedgerows 289 

Scent, why does it differ in vari- 
ous breeds of dogs 290 

Sea, why is it sometimes lumin- 
ous 1151 

Sea, why does it contain saline 
matter 1152 

Sea-birds, why are they able to 
breast the waves 940 

Sea-horse, why has it a pouch 
in its abdomen 1115 

Sea-horse, why has it a pointed 
tail 1117 

Seals, why classed among car- 
nivora 324 



xxii INDEX. 

Seals, why they abound in estu- tial to health 101 

aries and straits 326 Skull, why the only cavity in 

Seal-hunters, why do they place the body not enclosed by a 

themselves near holes in the membrane 53 

ice 328 Skull, why may the form oi be 

Seals, why are the nostrils of altered 92 

surrounded by hairs 330 Skylark, why does the song of 

Seals, why their nostrils close vary 7S8 

habitually 332 Sloth, why does it utter the 

Seals, why their eyes are pecu- sound of "ai" 404 

liarly developed 333 Sloth, why afele to exist through 

Sea-wolf, peculiar structure of winter without food 405 

the jaw . 627 Sloth, why well provided with 

Secretary bird, why are its means of defense 407 

wings tipped with hard points 682 Sloth, why erroneously consid- 

Secretary bird, why esteemed in ered awkward 408 

America . 683 Sloth, why has it difficulty in 

Seeing, why do its powers de- walking on the ground 410 

pend greatly on exercise 113 Sloth, how adapted to the local- 
Seeing, why erroneous to sup- m ities it inhabits 413 

pose that the eye takes in Sloth, habits and instincts of 415 

many near objects at once 114 Smell, how is the sense pro- 

Selachia, why is the fifth order duced 151 

of fishes so called 1124 Smell, why does sniffing air in- 

Senses, why placed in the head 112 crease 152 

Serpents, why have they no feet 1018 Smell, why does closing the 

Serpents, how are they able to mouth increase 153 

move without legs 1019 Smelling, why are the organs 

Serpents, why may they fall of, situated so near those of 

from trees without injury 1020 tasting 154 

Serpents, why have ,they the Smell, why is the sense of, in 

power of fascination 1024 dogs acute 268 

Shanny, why does it hide be- Snake, how does it throw its 

hind stones and rocks 1083 body from the ground 1021 

Sharks, why do they follow Snake-catchers, why are they 

ships 1128 able to charm snakes 1025 

Sharks, why have their eggs Snipe, why has it a long taper- 
long filaments attached 1129 ing bill • _ 894 

Sheep, why do they make a Snipes, why are their eyes back- 
nodding motion of the head 570 ward in their heads 895 

Sheep, why do they follow each Snipes, why do they not have 

other even into danger 572 long hind toes 896 

Sheep, why is their upper lip Sole, why does its skin clear 

divided 574 coffee 1092 

Sheep, wild and tame, why less Soles, why are they destitute of 

difference between^ than be- air-bladders , 1093 

tween wild and tame cattle 575 Soles, why do they swim upon 

Sheep, why so much bleating their sides 1096 

among, after shearing 641 Solids, their effect upon the 

Shepherd's dog, why are its hab- body 40 

its the result of training, and Solidungula T 473 

not instinct 296 Solidungulous animals, why 

Shrike, why called the sentinel 687 found in a wild state on 

Shrike, why called the butcher- plains ; 475 

bird 689 Souslik, why has it pouches in 

Sight, why essential to the firm- its cheeks 359 

ness of the body 110 Sparrows, why useful to vegeta- 

Sight, in old age, why are spec- tion 751 

tacles necessary 129 Sparrows, why bolder than most 

Sight, how are defects in, de- birds 752 

tected by opticians 130 Sparrow, why does the house- 
Skin, why has it a purple hue sparrow take the nests of 

when cold 35 other birds 753 

Skin, why are the pores essen- Sparrow, why late in awaking 754 



INDEX. 



Species, what is the meaning of 163 
Spectacles, why needed in old 
age 129 

Spermaceti, what is it 587 

Spinal column, why flexible 41 

Spine, why do not its move- 
ments injure the brain 91 

Spoonbill, why has it long man- 
dibles 905 

Sprats, what are they 1057 

Sprats, why do they usually ap- 
pear soon after herrings have 
spawned 1058 

Squinting, why some persons 
afflicted 132 

Squinting, how cured 133 

Squirrels, why do they convey 
food to their mouths with 
both paws 31>1 

Squirrels, why grouped as the 

genus sciurus 352 

Squirrels, why are their hind 
legs only slightly shorter than 
their fore legs 353 

Squirrels, why are their tails so 

long and bushy 355 

Squirrels, why are their eyes 

fully developed 354 

Squirrels, why they lay up 
stores 356 

Squirrels, why some called fly- 
ing 358 

Stag, why so eager to reach 

water before they stand at bay 527 

Stags, why said to shed tears 535 

Starlings, why do they frequent- 
ly accompany rooks 993 

Statue, why cannot stand up- 
right without support 17 

Stickleback, why are the fins 
nearest its gills continually 
moving 1141 

StomacTi, what is the form of 100 

Stork, why an enemy of the cat 
species 907 

Storks, why are they voracious 
eaters 908 

Stork, why has it always been 
an object of favor and vene- 
ration 909 

Swallows, why appoint a dis- 
tinct range of elevation 712 

Swallows, why adapted to migra- 
tion 713 

Swallows, why are the ^ nests 
made round 714 

Swallows, why their mandibles 

open far back 726 

Swallows, how do they build 
against walls 716 

Swallows, why do they build 
near dwellings of man 717 

Swallow, why is the esculent, so 

called 719 



Swallows, why does their high 

flight foretell fine weather 724 

Swans, why do they frequent 

shallow waters 928 

Swans, why are their wings 
capable of dealing a heavy 
blow 929 

Swans, why do they fly high — 928 

Swans, why is their flight gov- 
erned by the wind 933 

Swan, why is its plumage un- 
changeable 934 

Swan, why is its dying song 
fabulous 935 

Swift, why does it seldom alight 
on the ground 721 

Swifts, how do they gather ma- 
terial for nests 722 

Swifts, why appointed to a dis- 
tinct range of elevation ._ 712 

Sword-fish, why is its jaw fur- 
nished with a blade-like 
weapon 1108 

Syndactili, why so called 788 

Tailor-bird, why so named 696 

Tailor-bird, singular 697 

Tapir, why has it an indurated 

skin over the head and neck 466 

Tasting, why are the organs of, 
situated so near those of 
smelling — 154 

Tasting, why is it the least im- 
paired by age of the senses — 155 

Tears, why are they globular — 99 

Tears, why have they a globular 

form — 99 

Teeth, why not covered with 

perosteum 43 

Teeth, why is there a difference 

between the front and back 44 

Teeth, why are the gums well 
adapted for 94 

Teeth, fixture of, in the sockets 95 

Teeth of infants, why hidden — 96 

Teeth, why imperfectly organ- 
ized in comparison with ad- 
jacent parts 97 

Teeth, why do new ones appear 
in advanced age 98 

Teeth, why when a ticking 
watch is placed against, do 
they conduct sound 150 

Teleostia, why is the third or- 
der of, so named 1044 

Tendons, their relation to the 
muscles 61 

Tendons, what are they 65 

Tenuirostres, why so desig- 
nated 770 

Thick-headed people, why so 
called 54 

Thrushes, why do they build 
near human habitations 7D8 



INDEX. 



Thrush, why are its front toes 
fastened by a skin 710 

Tigers, their hearing very acute 213 

Tiger, why the tongue of, rough 214 

Titmouse, why does it suspend 
its nest over a pond 762 

Toad, instance of vitality __ 633 

Toads, why are they useful in 
greenhouses 1033 

Toads, why can they live em- 
bedded in rock or stone 1034 

Tooth, carnivorous 645 

Tortoises, why are their cheeks 
distended while breathing 1006 

Toucan, why so named 816 

Toucan, why does it toss back 
its head while eating 817 

Toucan, why has it an immense 
bill , 819 

Touch, why considered the most 
important of the senses 156 

Touch, extreme sensibility of, in 
blindness 157 

Touch, why more vivid when 
the circulation is active 158 

Touch, why is the sense of, oc- 
casionally illusive 159 

Trout, why are there many va- 
rieties 1008 

Trunk-fish, why covered with 
long plates 1120 

Turtles, why are they covered 
with hard external shells 1004 

Turtles, why have they no teeth 1007 

Veins, why have they a blue 
appearance 75 

Veins, why do they sometimes 
swell 76 

Veins, why are they bound up 
when the operation of bleed- 
ing is performed . 77 

Ventricles, their action in the 
circulation of the blood 74 

Vermes, what are they 164 

Vertrebrata 165 

Vulture, why a cowardly bird 655 

Vulture, description of the 
bearded 656 

Vulture, why are the head and 
neck without feathers 657 

Vulture, why does it soar to a 
great height 658 

Vulture, why called the king 660 

Wading-birds, why have they 
long legs and short tails 889 



Wading-birds, why have they 
wide-spreading feet 891 

Wagtails^ why do they congre- 
gate about cows 707 

Walrus, why has it large tusks 335 

Water-shrew, why bright and 
silvery when swimming 202 

Weasel, whence the proverb, 
"Catch a weasel," etc. 244 

Weasel, why an excellent hunter 
of mice 245 

Weasel, whence the proverb, 
"He builds closely with dry 
stones who can build out the 
weasel" 249 

Whales, by what means are they 
enabled to eject water in a 
spout 581 

Whales, what provision have 
they for the retention of heat 582 

Whales, why is the enormous 
size of the head no impedi- 
ment to locomotion 583 

Whales, structure and habits of 
the spermaceti 584 

Whales, why have they the flat 
surface of their tails placed 
horizontally 597 

Whalebone 585 

White-bait, what are they 1059 

Wolf and dog, what are the 
points of similarity 252 

Wolf and dog, why a difference 
in the pupils of the eyes 255 

Wood-pigeon, why are, its notes 
associated with gentleness and 
love 845 

Woodcocks, why do they disap- 
pear from cultivated districts 897 

Woodpeckers, why are their 
supposed ravages beneficial 797 

Woodpeckers, why are the ex- 
tremities of their tails hard 
and elastic 789 

Wren, why does it make several 
nests 698 

Wren, why associated with the 

redbreast 705 

Wren, why are the toes of gold- 
en-crested, fastened by a skin 710 

Wry-neck, why so called 828 

Youth, why is the human body 
soft and round ._ 39 

Zebra, why found in hilly and 
mountainous places , 506 

Zebra, beautiful form and colors 506 



"Nothing is foreign, parts relate to whole; 
One all-extending, all-preserving soul 
Connects each being, greatest with the least; 
Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — Pope. 



Knowledge of Natural History 



CHAPTER I. 

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF MAN.* 

1. What are the principal types of the varieties of the 
human race? 

The types generally recognized are those pointed out 
by Blumenbach, consisting of: — I. The Caucasian; 2. 
The Mongolian; 3. The Ethiopian; 4. The American; 5. 
The Malay. 

2. Why is the first of these types called the Caucasian? 

Because the tribes from which this great "division of the 
human family descended have for many ages been the occu- 
pants of the mountain chain of the Caucasus. 

The characters of this variety are, a white skin, either 
with a rosy tint, or inclining to brown; red cheeks; hair 
black, or of the various lighter colors, abundant, and more 
or less curled or waving; eyes dark in those of brown skin; 
light blue, gray, or greenish, in the fair or rosy complex- 



* The chapter upon the Natural History of Man has been founded 
upon Johnson's Physical Atlas; Prichard's Physical History of Man- 
kind; Lawrence's Lectures; Latham's Varieties of Man; The Encyclopaedia 
Americana, art. Man; and the concluding pages of Humboldt's Cosmos. 
For the subsequent chapters, a great number of authorities have been 
consulted, which are specified in the list of "Authorities." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"He 


prayeth best 


who 


loveth best 


All 


things 


both 


great 


and 


small; 


For 


the 


great 


God 


who 


loveth us, 


He 


made 


and loveth 


all."- 


—Coleridge. 



ioned ; large 
cranium with 
small face, the 
upper >and ante- 
rior regions of 
the former par- 
ticularly ,devel- 
oped, and the 
latter falling per- 
pendicularly un- 
der them ; face 
oval and straight, 
with features 
distinct from 

each other; ex- 
panded fore- 
h e a d, narrow 
and rather aqui- 
line nose, and 
small mouth ; 
front teeth of 
both jaws per- 
pendicular ; lips, 
particularly the 
lower, gently turned out; chin full, rounded, and bearded. 
In this type the moral feelings and intellectual powers 
are most energetic, being susceptible of the highest develop- 
ment and culture. It includes all the ancient and modern 
Europeans, except the Laplanders and the rest of the Fin- 
nish race. 

The sub-divisions, or varieties of this type are — the 
Circassian, or true Caucasian ;" the Syro- Arabian : Hindoo, 
Celtic, Grecian, Italian, German, Slavonic, etc., and Gyp- 
sies, originally from the banks of the Indus, from whence 
they have wandered over Europe. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Know then thyself, presume not God to scan, 
The proper study of mankind is man." — Pope. 



3. Why is the second of these types called the Mon- 
golian ? 

From the vast region of Mongolia, over which they are 
generally spread. 

They are char- 
acterized by an 
olive color,which 
in many cases is 
very light; black 
eyes; black, 
straight, strong, 
and thin hair ; 
little or no 
beard ; head of 
a square form, 
with small and 
low forehead ; 
broad and flat- 
ened face, with 
the features run- 
ning together ; 
nose small and 
flat; cheeks pro- 
jecting ; eyes 
placed very obliquely; slight projection of the chin; with 
the ears large and lips thick. The stature, particularly in 
the countries within the Arctic circle, is inferior to that of 
Europeans. 

The sub-divisions of this type are the true Mongols, the 
Tibetans, Chinese, Burmese, Siamese, Samoeids, Yeniseians, 
Finns, Lapps, Esquimaux, Turks, etc. These tribes occupy 
Central and Northern Asia, the Asiatic Islands, and the 
Arctic coasts of Asia and America. 

4. Why is the third type denominated the Ethiopian? 
Because the primitive tribes were the occupants of Ethi- 
opia, or the country of the dark skinned, the ancient name 




MONGOLIAN. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Be not of us afraid, 
Poor kindred man! thy fellow-creatures, we 
From the same Parent power our being drew, 
The same our Lord, our laws, our great pursuit." — Thompson. 

of Africa. The 
Ethiopian em- 
braces the Afri- 
can central tribes 
and their varie- 
ties, the Negroes 
of Western Af- 
rica, and the 
Kaffirs of the 
south. The Cen- 
tral Africans are 
marked by an 
elongated, nar- 
row cranium, 
crisp and curly 
hair, projecting 
jaws, thick lips, 
negro. and black or 

dusky skin. In 
the Negro the skull is narrow, or compressed at the sides, 
and elongated from front to back, the dome arched and 
dense, the forehead convex, retreating, and narrow; the con- 
tour of the head ic smooth compared with the angular form 
of the Mongol; the cheek bones project forward ; the bridge 
of the nose is small and flat, the nostrils round and wide; 
mouth wide with thick lips; hair crisp and woolly, except 
the eyebrows and eyelashes; beard scanty on the upper lip, 
and chiefly confined to the point of the chin; body strong, 
muscular, and symmetrical; feet broad and heavy, and the 
soles flat. In the Kaffir the cranium rises higher, and is 
more rounded than in the Negro; the cheek bones project, 
the eyes are small and dark, the eyelids occasionally oblique, 
the face tapers towards the chin, and the jaws are much 
less prominent than those of the Negro. 

5. Why is the American type so called? 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Man superior walks 
Amid the glad creation, musing praise, 
And looking lively gratitude." — Thompson. 



Because it includes the aboriginals of the American con- 
tinent which, 
though distrib- 
uted over wide 
latitudes, and ex- 
hibiting consid- 
erable diversity 
of form, have a 
general physical 
aspect which is 
common to the 
whole. The 
cheek bones are 
high, the fore- 
head rather low 
and retreating ; 
the nose promi- 
nent, not unfre- 
quently aquiline; 
jaws powerful, 
mouth large, lips 
full, eyes small, 
deep-set, and black; hair coarse, black, and rather scanty, 
beard scanty. Skin of a red copper color, and glossy in 
some North American tribes, and of a yellowish-red, light 
brown, and sallow hue in the various tribes of South Amer 
ica. This type includes all American aborigines except the 
Esquimaux, which are Mongolian. 

6. Why is the fifth type called the Malay? 

Because most of the tribes speak the Malay language, 
which, in the various ramifications of this race, may be 
traced from Madagascar to Easter Island in the South Pa- 
cific, half-way between Asia and America. The charac- 
teristics of this type are a brown color, varying from a light 
tawny tint, not deeper than that of the Spaniards and Portu- 




AMERICAN-WOMAN. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Truth bids me look on men as autumn leaves, 
And all they bleed for as the summer's dust 
Driven by the whirlwind." — Young. 



guese, to a deep brown, approaching to black; black hair, 
more or less curled, and abundant; head rather narrow; 
bones of the face large and prominent; nose full and broad 
towards the point, and mouth large. To this division be- 
long the inhabitants of the peninsula of Malacca, of Suma- 
tra, Java, Bor- 
neo, Celebes, 
and the adjacent 
islands of Aus- 
tralia, Van Die- 
man's Land, 
New Guinea, 
New Zealand, 
and the number- 
less islands scat- 
tered throughout 
the South Sea. 

7. Why have 
the primitive 
types retained 
their characteris- 
tic features chief- 
ly in mountain- 
ous countries? 
Because the stream of immigration naturally takes place 
in the direction of rivers, by which the tribes of the plains 
become mixed and changed; but mountains are less acces- 
sible, and frequently form almost impenetrable boundaries. 
We therefore find among mountaineers the remnants of the 
oldest races. 

8. Why are there so many different complexions in the 
tribes composing the various types? 

The problem has occupied the attention of philosophers 
and divines in all ages. The result of their investigations 
shows that no single cause, but a variety of causes, must 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 7 

" 'Tis vain to seek in man far more than man, 
Though proud in promise big in previous thought, 
Experience damps gur triumphs." — Young. 

be considered. The most important of them are : 1 , climate ; 
2, organization; 3, intermarriage; 4, exceptional circum- 
stances. The influence of climate is shown by the fact that 
every zone is more or less marked by a distinctive color. 
Black prevails under the equator, copper color under the 
tropics, olive and fair towards the poles. 

The influence of organization is shown in many in- 
stances, -the Moors, who have lived for ages under a burn- 
ing sun, still have white children, and the offspring of Euro- 
peans in the Indies have the original tint of their progenitors. 
Different complexions are in some cases intermixed by immi- 
grant races, and white and black people dwell together ; and 
complexions are modified by the offspring of marriages be- 
tween members of the different races. But it is further and 
most conclusively demonstrated by an examination of the 
skins of the darkly-colored races, in which a secreted color- 
ing matter is found. The skin is thicker and harder in 
black people than in white. The external skin of each is 
transparent and colorless. The coloring matter of the col- 
ored races lies in the rete mucosum, or inner skin, and this 
color is seen through the transparent true skin, just as white 
people see the traces of their dark veins through the same 
cuticle. The influences of intermarriage are abundantly 
demonstrated by the fact that the union of black and white 
parents generally produces children of an intermediate char- 
acter, which are called mulattoes; and of exceptional cir- 
cumstances in the less frequent occurence of the birth of 
pie-bald negroes, having their skin diversified with black and 
white spots, and part of their woolly hair white; of short 
parents producing very tall children, etc. 

9*. The change of color in the human skin, from exposure to sun and 
air, is well known to be temporary. The discoloration which we term 
"tanning," or being "sun-burnt," as well as the spots called "freckles," 
are most incidental to fair skins, and disappear when the parts cov- 
ered or no longer exposed to the sun. The children of the husband- 
man or of the sailor whose countenance bears the marks of other climes, 
are just as fair as those of the most delicate and pale inhabitants of a city. 



8 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"So from the first eternal order ran, 
And creature link'd to creature man to man." — Pope. 

1 0. What imparted to various tribes the different habits 
and modes of life for which they are remarkable? 

Chiefly the physical features of the countries in which 
they were born, or into which they wandered. The people 
who established themselves in the frozen regions of the north 
not finding enough of vegetable nourishment, became hunters 
and fishers. Necessarily separated from each for the pur- 
suit of sustenance, they multiplied slowly, and civilization 
remained unknown. Among such people the arts are con- 
fined to the construction of huts, the preparation of skins 
for covering, and to the manufacture of spears and other 
weapons. The inhabitants of the northern and eastern parts 
of Siberia, and the savages of North America, are almost 
the only people who are now to be found in this primitive 
state. Those people who feed numerous herds of cattle, in 
localities where it was necessary to seek new pastures for their 
maintenance, necessarily adopted a wandering life. Trav- 
eling in numbers, they acquired ideas of property and of 
mutual rights; and inequality of condition soon gave one 
man power over another. But the wandering life in search 
of new pastures and more agreeable climates, kept them still 
within very narrow limits of civilization. The Laplanders 
in the north of Europe, the Tartars, who inhabit the vast 
region in the interior of Asia, the Bedouin Arabs, who 
occupy the sands of Arabia and the north of Africa, and 
the Kaffirs and Hottentots in Southern Africa, are the prin- 
cipal wandering tribes that still remain. In countries where 
the nature of the soil and the value of the productions ren- 
dered an abiding residence essential, people took to agricul- 
ture, acquired property in land, developed themselves into 
classes, instituted laws, became less predatory and warlike; 
and when, in the division of labor and duty, the functons 
of the civilian became separated from those of the soldier, 
the civil portion of society cultivated various improvements 
and assumed the habits of civilized men. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 9 

"To man she gave, in that proud hour, 
The boon of intellectual power." — Moore. 

* 

I 1 . What is the chief physical distinction between man 
and the inferior animals? 

The brain of man is proportionally much larger, and 
the jaws are much shorter than in any other being. The 
brain, by its great extent, forms the protuberance of the 
occipital bone, the forehead, and all that part of the head 
which is above the ears. 

In the inferior animals the brain is so small that most 
of them have no occiput, and the front is either wanting or 
but little raised. Man combines by far the largest cranium 
with the smallest face, and animals deviate from these rela- 
tions in proportion as they increase in stupidity and ferocity. 

12. Why may we feel assured that all the varieties of 
man sprung from one original? 

Because we have, first, the Scriptural history ol man's 
creation; and, secondly, scientific investigations entirely sup- 
port the unity of man's origin. 

Whilst attention was exclusively directed to the extremes 
of color and of form, the result of the first vivid impressions 
derived from the senses was a tendency to view these differ- 
ences as characteristics, not of mere varieties, but of origin- 
ally distinct species. The permanence of certain types in the 
midst of the most opposite influences, especially of climate, 
appeared to favor this view, notwithstanding the shortness of 
the time to which the historical evidence applied. But the 
many intermediate gradations of the tint of the skin and the 
form of the skull, which have been made known by the 
rapid progress of geographical science in modern times; the 
analogies derived from the history of varieties in animals, 
both domesticated and wild ; and to the positive observations 
collected respecting the limits of fecundity in hybrids. 

So long as the western nations were acquainted with only 
a part of the earth's surface, partial views almost necessarily 
prevailed; tropical heat and a black color of the skin ap- 
peared to be inseparable. When the first Portuguese navi- 
gators sailed for purposes of discovery to the shores of 



10 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Happy the man who sees a God employed 
In all the good and ill that chequer life!" — Cowper. 

Africa, it was confidently predicted by learned men of the 
time that if ever they returned they would be as black as the 
negro race. 

When we take a general view of the dark colored 
African nations, and compare them with the native of the 
Australasian Islands, and with the Papuas and Alfourous, 
we see that a black skin, woolly hair, and negro features, 
are by no means invariably associated. 

13. Linnaeus was the first who ventured to class man in a scientific 
system with other animals; and he did not escape the censure of some, 
as degrading the dignity of the human race by such an approximation; 
but classification is a mere statement of fact in anatomy, and the philos- 
opher who observes and interprets nature, is not surely to blame. 

Man, then, whether considered as the head of the animal creation, 
and a part of it; or as a sole genus and sole species, distinct from 
others, and lord of all; whether defined to be a biped without feathers, 
or a quadruped without hoofs, a ■ monkey with a voice, or a monkey 
without a tail, — if viewed solely in a physical light, and setting aside his 
divine reason, and his immortal nature, — is a being provided with two 
hands, designed for prehension, and having fingers protected by flat nails, 
and two feet, with single soles, destined for walking; with a single 
stomach, and with three kinds of teeth, — incisive, canine, and molar. 

His position is upright, his food both vegetable and animal, his body 
naked. It has been made a subject of dispute, whether there is more 
than one species in the human race; but it is merely a dispute of 
words; and if the term species is used in its cemmon scientific sense, 
it cannot be denied that there is but one species. There are, however, 
certain and constant differences of stature, physiognomy, color, nature 
of the hair or form of the skull, which have given rise to subdivisions 
of this species. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN FRAME THE BONES, 

MUSCLES, TENDONS, LIGAMENTS, NERVES, ETC. 

14. Why is the position of the human face exactly 
adapted to the erect attitude? 

^ Because in that posture the plane of the orbits is nearly 
horizontal; the cavities of the nose are in the direction for 
inhaling odors proceeding from before or from below; the 
jaws do not project in front of the forehead and chin. If 
the posture were changed, as paniful an effort would be re- 
quired to examine an object in front of the body as is now 
necessary to keep the eyes fixed on the zenith, and the 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 1 

"Ye chief, for whom the whole creation smiles; 
At once the head, the heart, the tongue of all, 
Crown the great hymn!" — Thomson. 

heavens would be almost hidden from our view; the nose 
would be unable to perceive any other odors than those 
which proceeded from the earth or from the body itself ; and 
the teeth and lips would be almost useless, for they would 
scarcely touch an object on the ground before the forehead 
and chin were in contact with it; while the view of that 
which they attempted to seize would be obstructed by the 
nose and cheeks. 

15. Why is a horizontal posture unfitted for the human 
body? 

Because if man were to attempt such a posture he would 
be compelled to rest on his knee, with his thighs bent towards 
the trunk; an attempt to advance them would be painful, and 
with his legs and feet would be immoveable and useless. Or, 
he must elevate his trunk on the extremities of his toes, throw- 
ing his head downwards, and exerting himself very forcibly 
at every attempt to bring forward the thighs by a rotary 
motion at the hip-joint. In either case, the only useful joint 
would be that at the hip, and the legs would be scarcely 
superior to wooden or rigid supports. 

1 6. Why is the variation of animal bodies most common 
in the center, whilst towards the extremities there is com- 
parative uniformity? 

Because the central parts, as the skull, spine, and ribs, 
are in their offices permanent; whilst the extremities, as the 
hands and feet, are adapted to every exterior circumstance. 
In all animals the office of the cranial part of the skull is to 
protect the brain, that of the spine to contain the spinal mar- 
row, and that of the ribs to perform the part of respiration. 
It is unnecessary, therefore, for these parts to vary in shape, 
while their offices remain the same. But the shoulder, on 
the contrary, must vary in form, as it does in motion, in 
different animals; so must the shape of the bones and of the 
joints more distant from the center be adapted to their 
various actions, and the wrist, the ankle, and the bones of 



12 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, 
Or hand, to toil, aspired to be the head?" — Pope. 

the fingers and toes must change more than all the rest, to 
accommodate the extremities to their diversified offices. 

1 7. Why cannot a statue stand upright on its feet with- 
out support, although it may be a model of symmetry in all 
its parts, and is placed in that attitude which is the most 
adapted to man? 

Because a statue has but one center of gravity, and 
when that is so shifted as that the perpendicular through it 
to the center of the earth falls in any way without the base 
of the statue — that is, without a figure formed by lines join- 
ing all the external points of the feet upon which the statue 
rests— the statue must necessarily fall to the earth with all 
the passiveness of a mass of matter of any other shape. The 
human body, on the other hand, has a muscular feeling of 
the center of gravity, in consequence of which, if that center 
inclines so much on one side that the position is beginning to 
become unstable, the motions and flexions of the limbs in- 
stantly shift the center of gravity, or rather shift the attitude 
of the body, so as to accommodate it to that center. 

18. The center of gravity in the body is somewhere in the height 
of it, varying a little with the form; and if this center is kept in the 
perpendicular, the body will always maintain the position of the great- 
est stability, whatever may be the flexures of motions of the other 
parts; or the center of gravity may move so as to be over any one point 
in the base and yet be stable, only the stability will always be less the 
nearer that the # body is to one side of the base, and the farther it is 
from the opposite side. The number of positions which the body can 
assume while on the same base of the two feet is almost beyond the power 
of arithmetic; and as the positions of the feet themselves may Be also 
greatly varied, the command which we have of the body by means of our 
power of working it upon its center of gravity is truly wonderful. 

19. Why is the sole of the foot arched? 

Because by this arrangement the weight of the body is 
made to fall on the summit of the arch, which is supported 
by a strong ligament, and this method of support, as is 
demonstrated by bridges and other buildings, is the strongest 
and most secure that can be devised. 

20. Why is the human hand the most important mem- 
her of the whole body? 

Because it is the hand which gives the power of execu- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 3 

"AK are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul." — Pope. 

tion to the mind; and it is the relative position of one of the 
fingers to the other four which principally stamps the char- 
acter of the hand; for the thumb, by its capability of being 
brought into opposition with each of the other fingers, en- 
ables the hand to adapt itself to every shape, and gives it that 
complete dominion which it possesses over the various forms 
of matter. 

2 1 . Why is the hand divided into several parts ? 
Being thus constructed the hand is capable of applying 

a portion or the whole of its functions, according to the size, 
form, and weight of the object it designs to handle. 

22. Thus the smallest things we take up with the tips of our fingers; 
those which are a little larger we take up with the same fingers, but 
not with the tips of them; substances still larger we take up with 
three fingers, and so on with four or all the five fingers, or even with 
the whole hand; all which we could not do were not the hand divided, 
and divided precisely as it is. 

23. Why are the hands made equal to and inclined 
towards each other? 

Because when bodies of a great weight and large size 
are to be grasped on opposite sides, it is necessary that the 
instruments which lift them should be capable of this com- 
bined action. 

24. Why are extremities of the fingers soft and round? 

If they had been otherwise formed, or made of bone in- 
stead of flesh, we could not then lay hold of such minute 
bodies as thorns or hairs. For, in order that a body may be 
firmly held, it is necessary that it be in some degree enfolded 
in the substance holding it; which condition could not have 
been fulfilled by a hard or bony material. 

25. Why are the fingers of an unequal length? 

This difference in the length of the fingers serves innu- 
merable purposes in connection with the arts and ordinary 
operations of life; thus a pen, a pencil, a brush, an engrav- 
ing tool, a sword, a hammer, etc., may be more securely 
grasped, and used with greater facility; for if the fingers 
were of an equal length, one would get in the way of the 



14 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Man! know thyself. All wisdom centers there: 
To none man seems ignoble, but to man." — Young. 

other, and prevent the whole from performing their office 
properly. 

26. Why are the palms of the hands and the insides 
and tips of the fingers guarded by cushions of skin? 

If it were not for this protection, the strain upon the 
blood vessels and nerves would be too great, and the texture 
even of bones and muscles would not be able to sustain the 
demand made upon them. 

27. Why are the fingers furnished with nails? 

If the fingers were not thus furnished, the flesh would be 
forced out of its position and incapable of supporting hard 
substances; the assistance of the nails is also necessary in re- 
taining minute objects which would otherwise elude the 
grasp. 

28. The nails are applicable to many other purposes, and in polishing 
ant? scraping, in tearing and peeling off the skins of vegetables and 
animals, and in almost every act where nicety of execution is required. 

29. How are the nails of the hands and feet formed? 
The nails are a part of the scarf skin, and present the 

same phenomena of adaptation to the surface of the sensitive 
skin, but in a more striking manner. The portion of sensi- 
tive skin which gives support to the nail is formed into verv 
delicate longitudinal folds, which stand up perpendicularly 
to the surface. The nail upon its under surface is fashioned 
into thin vertical plates, which are received between the folds 
of sensitive skin; and in this manner the two kinds of laminae 
reciprocally embracing each other, the firmness of connection 
of the nail is maintained. 

30. If we look on the surface of the nail we see an indication of 
its structure in the alternate red and white lines which are there observed; 
the former of these correspond with the sensitive laminae, the latter with 
the horny plates, and the ribbed appearance of the nail is due to the 
same circumstance. These sensitive lamina are provided with «n unusual 
number of blood-vessels for the formation of the nail, and hence they 
give a red tint to that portion under which they lie; but nearer the root 
of the nail, there is a part which is not laminated, but merely ridged 
longitudinally, and is less abundantly supplied with capillary vessels. 
This latter part consequently looks pale if compared with the preceding. 
The root of the nail is embedded in a fold of sensitive skin to the 
depth of about a twelfth part of an inch for the fingers and toes, about 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. t 5 

"Vast chain of being! which from God began, 
Natures etherial, human, angel, man."— Pope. 

the eighth part of an inch for the thumb, and the sixth of an inch 
for the great toe. 

31. What are the papillae? 

Papillae are the termination of the nerves on the sur- 
face of the skin, soft and pulpy, and forming minute pro- 
tuberances, resembling the nap of frieze cloth, though greatly 
inferior in magnitude. These nerves are a species of animal 
feelers, and are the immediate instruments of sensation. 

32. When examining or enjoying any object, it is natural to enquire, 
What are the changes produced in the nervous papillae or organs of 
sensation? If an object possessed of agreeable feeling is perceived, the 
nervous papillae instantly extend themselves, and from a state of flaccidity 
become comparatively rigid. When a pefson in the dark inclines to 
examine any object, in order to discover its figure or other qualities, he 
perceives a kind of rigidity at the tips of his fingers. If the fingers are 
kept long in this state the rigidity of the nervous papillae will give 
him a kind of pain or anxiety, which is caused by the over distention of 
the papillae. If a small insect creep upon a person's hand, when the 
papillae are flaccid, its movements are not perceived; but if he happen 
to direct his eye to the animal, he immediately extends the papillae, 
and feels distinctly all the motions of the insect. 

33. Why is the cuticle slightly rough, instead of being 
perfectly smooth; as might be hastily considered its most 
appropriate characteristic? 

Because the slightly rough surface endows it with a 
quality more adapted to convey sensation. An illustration 
of this truth is furnished by the imperfect sense of touch 
which contact with polished surfaces affords, as compared 
with the handling of rough bodies. 

34. A provision for increasing friction is especially necessary in 
some parts of the skin. Thus the roughness of the cuticle in the palm of 
the hand, and in the sole of the foot, gives us a firmer grasp and a 
steadier footing. Nothing is so little apt to slip as the thickened 
scarf-skin, either of the hand or the foot. 

35. Why has the skin a purple hue when exposed to 
cold? 

Because the vigor of the nervous power is reduced by 
cold ; and in addition to the repulsion inward of most of the 
blood contained within the vessels of the skin producing 
pallor, that which remains behind moves so languidly through 
the capillaries that the change from bright red to deep black 



16 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Know, Nature's children, all divide her care, 
The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear." — Pope. 

red has time to be established before it completes its circuit 
and reaches the veins. 

36. Why is fat necessary to the system? 

Its principal uses are mechanical. It surrounds the 
organs like an elastic cushion, so as to protect the more 
delicate parts from sudden and injurious shocks. The soles 
of the feet, for example, upon which the whole weight of the 
body rests, and which in locomotion are subject to frequent 
concussion and pressure, are protected by a cushion of fat, 
which breaks the shocks which would otherwise take place 
between the foot and the ground, in the same manner as do 
the buffer-cushions which are placed between the carriages 
of a railway train. 

37. There is another physical quality in fat which renders it of 
considerable utility in the animal economy. It is nearly a non-conductor 
of heat, and as it is generally collected in a superficial stratum investing 
the organs, it prevents the undue escape of heat, and keeps the body 
warm ; it thus performs the part of a blanket or clothing,^ and it is 
found accordingly that fat persons are less chilly than thin persons. 

3. Why does hair form so appropriate a covering for 
the head? 

The hairs by their number and the manner in which they 
are disposed, are well adapted to deaden any strokes which 
may fall on the head, and to prevent strong pressure from 
wounding the skin. Being bad conductors of heat, they 
form a sort of felt, whose meshes intercept the air, and by 
that means preserve a uniform temperature in the head, to a 
certain degree, independent of that of the air and of sur- 
rounding bodies; besides, being impregnated with an oily 
matter, the hair imbibes but a small quantity of water, and 
very soon dries. 

39. Why is the human body soft and round in youth, 
and hard, unequal, and angular in advanced life? 

Because the softness and roundness of form of the 
human body is owing to the greater proportion of fluids to 
that of solids ; the younger the age the greater the preponder- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 7 

"There closely braced, 
And neatly fitted, it compresses hard 
The prominent and most unsightly bones, 
And binds the shoulders flat." — Cowper. 



ance of fluids. The human embryo when first perceptible is 
almost semi-fluid; solid substances are gradually but slowly 
superadded, and even after birth the preponderance is strict- 
ly according to age: for in the infant the fluids abound more 
than in the child ; in the child more than in the youth ; in the 
youth more than in the adolescent; in the adolescent more 
than in the adult; and in the adult more than in the aged. 

40. The fluids are not only more abundant than the solids, but 
they are also more important, as they afford the immediate material of 
the organization of the body; the medium by which its composition and 
decomposition are affected. They bear nourishment to every part, and 
by them are carried out of the system its noxious and useless matter. 

41. Why is the spinal column flexible? 

This flexibility renders the movement of the body free, 
easy, and varied, and accommodating to the complex com- 
bination of motion which may be brought into play at any 
moment, with the rapidity of the changes of thought, and at 
the command of the impulses of feeling. If the spinal col- 
umn were composed of a rigid and immovable pile of bones, 
all the other* parts of the body, to which they are directly 
or indirectly attached, would have been rendered stiff and 
mechanical in their movements, and would not have been 
able to move, save in a given direction. 

42. The degree of flexibility which the spinal column possesses, and 
the extent to which, by the cultivation of it, it is sometimes actually- 
brought, is exemplified in the positions and contortions of the posture- 
master and the tumbler. It is acquired by means of the compressible and 
elastic matter interposed between the several vertebrae. So compressible 
is this substance that the human body is half-an-inch shorter in the 
evening than in the morning, having lost by the exertions of the day so 
much of its stature; yet so elastic is this matter that the stature lost 
during the day is regained by the repose of the night. 

43. Why are all the hones of the body covered with a 
delicate coating, termed periosteum, except the teeth? 

The teeth are not true bones, but are related to the skin 
outgrowths. Like the hairs, the teeth are nourished through 
the base and not like the bones over the whole surface. 



1 8 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"In human works, though labored on with pain, 
A thousand movements scarce our purpose gain; 
In God's one single can its ends produce; 
Yet serves to second too some other use." — Pope. 



Had so exquisitely sensitive a membrane as the perios- 
teum invested the teeth, as it invests every other bone of the 
body, action, necessary exposure, and irritation would have 
subjected the animal to continual pain. General as it is, it 
was not the sort of integument which suited the teeth; what 
they stood in need of was a strong, hard, insensible defensive 
coat, and exactly such a covering is given to them, in the 
ivory enamel which adheres to their surface. 

44. Why are the front teeth of the mouth sharp and the 
back teeth broad and blunted? 

Because the office of the former is to cut and separate the 
food ; while the purpose of the latter is to grind it to a pulp, 
by which it becomes fitted for the process of digestion. . 

45. What are the uses, distinct and mutual, of the 
bones and muscles? 

The bones are to the body what the masts and spars are 
to a ship — they give support and the power of resistance. 
The muscles, again, are to the bones what the ropes are to" 
the masts and spars ; it is to them that the bones are indebted 
for the preservation or the change of their position. If the 
bones or masts are too feeble in proportion to the weight 
which they are required to sustain, then a deviation from their 
shape or position takes place; and, on the other hand, if the 
muscles or ropes are not sufficiently strong and well braced, 
then insufficiency of support must necessarily result. 

46. Early infancy affords an instance of both of the above-mentioned 
imperfections, the bones being infirm, and the muscles small and destitute 
of true fleshy fibers. The disease called "Softness of the bones," is an 
illustration of what may be called a weak mast of the body, which must 
yield if its muscles be strongly drawn. The state of muscular debility 
consequent on fever and many acute diseases, or even on sudden fright, 
is, on the other hand, an instance of the inability of the bones alone 
to preserve an attitude or execute motion, when the muscular system is 
weakened by disease. 

47. Why is the cylindrical form of the long bones of 
the body advantages to structure of the human frame? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 19 

"The man who consecrates his hours 
By vigorous effort, and an honest aim, 
At once he draws the sting of life and death." — Young 

The superior advantages of this arrangement are illus- 
trated as follows: If a piece of timber supported on two 
points, thus — 




bear a weight upon it, it sustains this weight by different 
qualities in its different parts. For example, divide it into 
three equal parts, A, B, C; the upper part, A, supports the 
weight by its solidity and resistance to compression; the low- 
est part, B, on the other hand, resists by its toughness or 
adhesive quality. Between the portions acting in so different 
a manner, there is an intermediate, neutral, or central part, 
C, which may be taken away without materially weakening 
the beam, which shows that a hollow cylinder is the form of 
strength. 

48. How is it that the joints of the body undergo so 
much use for many years without diminution of their action? 

This durability is attributable to the provision which is 
made for preventing wear and tear, first, by the polish of the 
cartilaginous surfaces; secondly, by the healing lubrication 
of the mucilage, and in part to that astonishing property of 
animal constitutions, assimilation, by which in every portion 
of the body, let it consist of what it may, substance is re- 
stored and waste repaired. 

49. The union of joints even where no motion is intended or re- 
quired, carries marks of mechanism and mechanical wisdom. The teeth, 
especially the front teeth, are one bone fixed in another, like a peg 
driven into a board. The sutures of the skull are like the edges of 
two saws clapped together in -such a manner as that the teeth of one 
enter the intervals of the other. We have sometimes one bone lapping 
over another, and planed down at the edges; sometimes, also the thin 
lajiella of one bone re-curved into a narrow furrow of another. In all 



20 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Each night we die, 
Each morn are born anew: each day a life 
And shall we kill each day? If trifling kMls, 
Sure vice must butcher." — Young. 



of which varieties we discover the same design; namely, firmness of junc* 
tion without clumsiness of seam. 

50. How are the strength and lightness of the human 
body preserved independently of the bones? 

By the pressure of the atmosphere, consequent on the 
air-tight character of the bag formed by the synovial mem- 
brane (which secretes the oily fluid of the joints), and which 
is of itself more than sufficient to keep the articulating sur- 
faces of the bones in contact. 

51. This admirable fact is most readily demonstrated by the hip- 
joint. The round head of the thigh-bone is received into a socket, thus 
constituting what is familiarly known as a ball-and-socket joint; and 
all communication between the cavity of the joint and external fluids is 
cut off by the synovial membrane. The power thus exercised by the 
atmosphere is about -one-fifth greater than would be necessary to support 
a limb weighing thirty pounds, and the barometer would require to fall 
twenty-five inches to place the limb and the atmosphere in exact equili- 
brium. The pressure of the atmosphere on the shoulder joint is capable 
of supporting a weight nearly twice that of the arm, and the force 
thus exercised upon the elbow-joint, knee-joint, and highest joint of the 
fore-finger are respectively six times, nine times, and thirty-five times 
greater than are requisite for the support of the fore-arm, leg, and finger. 

52. What is the structure of the ribs? 
The ribs are a frame of bones which 

enclose a hollow space. The lungs and 
heart are within them. The ribs are 
fastened in front to a bone called the 
breast-bone, and are joined at the back 
to the backbone. In front, the rib-bones 
are joined to the breast-bone by gristle, 
and this gives them a certain amount of 
flexibility, and enables them to move more 
easily when the lungs fill with air. 

53. Why is the skull the only cavity in the body that is 
not enclosed by a membrane? 

Because the importance of the brain to life, and the 
extreme tenderness of its substance, make a solid case more 
necessary for it than is required for any other part. The 
skull also completely surrounding its contents, is calculated 
not for motion, but solely for defense. 







KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 21 

"Hope humbly then; with trembling pinions soar; 
Wait the great teacher Death, and God adore." — Pope. 

54. Why are persons remarkable for their stupidity 
commonly termed "thick-headed?" 

The bones of the cranium which are in connection with 
those of the face, require to increase proportionately in their 
growth, so as to keep pace with the face, and preserve the 
symmetry of the parts. This they do, however, only in their 
external table, the internal remaining to preserve the sym- 
metry of the bones of the cranium. From this inequality of 
development, spaces are left between the two tables termed 
sinuses. In the forehead, immediately under the eye-brows, 
there are two such named frontal sinuses. It sometimes 
happens that the brain shrinks from disease, as in idiocy. In 
such cases the internal table follows the brain, and the 
distance between the two tables is increased, the intervening 
space being either filled with a kind of refuse, or remaining 
empty, forming unusually large sinuses. 

55. A female child about four months after birth was noticed to 
have an unusually large head. Till the fourth year, however, it did not 
excite much attention, and the mental powers up to this period seemed to be 
excited in the ordinary degree. At this period, however, the head began 
rapidly to enlarge, and the mind became more and more obscured, till 
complete idiocy supervened, and continued till her death, which occurred 
in her twenty-second year. The head became too large to be supported 
by the puny muscles of the neck; she therefore constantly lay on a 
pallet by the side of the fire. She appeared to have some slight glimmerings 
of mind, was readily amused, like a young child, with noise and brilliant 
objects, and for years kept rubbing a penny piece in her hands, which 
she would not part with day or night, and which became at length reduced 
to the thinness of a wafer. 

56. What purposes are served by the projection of the 
heel and the prominence of the knee-pan? 

They increase by mechanical adjustment the power of 
the muscles; for by such means the point of insertion of the 
muscles is removed to a distance from the center of motion 
in the joint, and the leyer power thus obtained is greatly 
increased. 

57. Why is iU that although the bones are designed for 
the strengthening and support of the frame, yet they never 
touch each other? 

Because were it not for the fine elastic material, the 
cartilage, interposed between the bones, the frame would be 



22 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
How complicate, how wonderful is man." — Young. 

deprived of its elasticity. Without such elasticity, a jar 
would reach the more delicate organs, even in the very re- 
cesses of the body, at every violent motion; and every joint 
would crack by the attrition of the surfaces of the bones. 

58. What is a muscle? 

A muscle is composed of long slender fibers, which pos- 
sess the power of contracting, and are everywhere enveloped 
in common cellular membranes; the fibers become fewer as 
they approach the extremity of the muscle, and ultimately 
terminate. The cellular substance that envelopes them being 
thus freed from the muscular fibers, joins more closely to- 
gether, and forms itself into a white, round, or flattened 
tendon. When the muscular fibers contract, their power is 
united on the tendon, and drawing it up, makes it perform 
the action of a pulley. 

59. Different muscles accomplish very different purposes. Some of 
them draw down the limb or part to which they are attached, if it has 
a moveable joint, and is placed under the part of the body in which 
it acts. Others elevate and extend the moveable parts to which they 
belong, and are placed on the superior surface. Some muscles, also, 
move on the parts obliquely, as the oblique muscles of the eye, and 
others make them describe a semi-circle, as in the motions of the 
neck, arms, legs, etc.; some elevate the upper eyelids; others contract 
them, as the eyebrows; or wrinkle them, as the extremities of the lips. 
The muscles also act on the legs, arms, fingers, toes, etc., in moving 
them to either side. Another example of their power is instanced in 
the forearm, legs, etc. The beauty of the mechanism of the muscles is 
also evinced in the abdomen, where some are transverse, others straight, 
oblique, etc. 

60. What are the nerves? 

They are a species of fine thread running from every part 
of the body, charged with exquisite sensibility, by which 
they convey the impression or commands between our will 
and our muscles. 

The vital power of a muscle resides in the nerves, and is nervous. 
Its irritable power is the property by which it feels and acts, when 
stimulated without consciousness. It is an inherent principle belonging 
to its constitution, and remains some time after death. Ligaments and 
tendons support the same weight, whether dead or alive; but a living 
muscle that lifts one hundred pounds with ease, cannot, after death, 
raise twenty pounds without danger of rupture. When a muscle is 
newly cut from a limb, it palpitates and trembles for a considerable 
time — it cannot be nervous power that thus makes it irritable; for 
the nerves being separated from their organ, are dead and powerless. 
If the heart is newly separated from the body, it contracts if irritated. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



23 



"Look round our world; behold the chain of Love 
Combining all below, and all above." — Pope. 



The bowels continue their peristaltic motion after death, until they 
become stiff and cold. This quality belongs absolutely to the muscle, 
and exists, in some cases without nervous irritability altogether — hence, 
there is a distinction between nervous sensibility and muscular irrita- 
bility. The former dies immediately with the animal; the latter lives 
for a short time after the animal is dead. Muscles are irritable and 
contractile by the inherent principle of their fibers, and are sensible 
by the vitality communicated through their nerves. Though nerves 
are sensible, they are not contractile, and cannot perform the functions 
of muscular fibers. 

61. Why do We find muscles under a multiplying of 
forms and attitudes, sometimes with double, sometimes with 
treble tendons, sometimes with none, sometimes one tendon 
to several muscles, at other times, one muscle to several 
tendons ? 

The reason for this great mechanical variety in the figure 
of the muscle, is owing to a fixed law that the contraction of 
a muscle shall be towards its center. Therefore, the object 
for mechanism on each occasion is so to modify the figure 
and adjust the position of the muscle as to produce the 
motion required agreeably with this law. This can only be 
done by giving to different muscles a diversity of configura- 
tion suited to their several offices, and to their situation with 
respect to the work which they have to perform. 

62. The illustration of this principle is as follows: A is the 

tendonous organ; B the ten- 
donous insertion, and the mus- 
cular fibers run obliquely be- 
tween them. This obliquity 
of the fibers is almost univer- 
sal in the muscles of the limb, 
and the effect is very import- 

we pull obliquely 

For what advantage, 

thing 




ant. If 
upon a weight, we sacrifice a great deal of power, 
then, is power resigned in the muscle? If we wish 
towards any place with the 
least force, we must pull di- 
rectly in the line between the 
object and the place; but if 
we wish to draw it as quickly 
as possible, without any re- 
gard to the loss of force, we 
must pull it obliquely by 
drawing it in two directions 
at once. Tie a string to a 
stone A, and draw it straight 
towards you at C with one 
hand; then make a loop on 
another string, and running 
the first through it, draw one 



draw 




24 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

— ^-^ 

"Leisure is pain; takes off our chariot wheels; 
How heavily we drag the load of life; 
Blest leisure is our curse." — Young. 

string in each hand, B, B, not towards you in the line A, C, but side- 
ways, till both strings are stretched in a straight line; you will see 
how much swifter the stone moves than it did before when pulled straight- 
forward. Now this is proved by mathematical reasoning to be the neces- 
sary consequences of forces applied obliquely; there is a loss of power 
but a great increase of velocity. The velocity is the quality required to 
be gained. 

63. By what mechanism are the motions of the arm 
performed? 

The arm is joined to the body, and moved by numerous 
powerful muscles ; and is fixed to the breast by the ligaments 
of the collar-bone. The muscles that move the shoulder- 
blade lie upon the trunk; those that move the arm lie upon 
the shoulder-blade ; those that move the fore-arm lie upon the 
arm; and those that move the hand and fingers lie upon the 
fore-arm. But as the arm requires easy, circular motions, it 
has a multiplicity of parts to perform them. It has the 
wrist, for turning it round; the elbow, for its hinge-like 
motions; and the shoulder-joint, on which it rolls; and to 
assist all those, the moveable shoulder-blade becomes the 
center of their motions; for, after a certain point of eleva- 
tion, the motion of raising the arm is performed by the action 
of the shoulder-blade upon the trunk; when our shoulder- 
bone is raised to a horizontal position, it is checked by the 
upper part of the shoulder-joint which hangs over it; and if 
we elevate our arm still higher, the shoulder-blade rolls, 
turning upon the point of the collar-bone; and, as it turns, it 
glides easily upon those muscles, which lie like a fleshy 
cushion between it and the trunk over which it is placed. 

64. Why are the muscles often removed by means of 
slender strings from the parts they are designed to rest upon? 

Because, in many cases, the situation of the muscles 
where they are immediately required would be inconvenient. 
If the muscles which move the fingers had been placed in the 
palm or the back of the hand, they would have swelled that 
part to an awkard and clumsy thickness; the beauty and the 
proportion of the part would have been destroyed. They 
are, therefore, disposed in the arm, and even up to the elbow, 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 25 

"Since God is ever present, ever felt, 
In the void waste as in the city full; 
And where he vital breathes there must be joy." — Thomson. 

and act by long tendons strapped down at the wrist, and 
passing under the ligaments to the fingers and to the joints of 
the fingers which they are severally to move. In like 
manner, the muscles which move the toes, and many of the 
joints of the foot, are disposed in the calf of the leg, instead 
of forming an unwieldy tumefaction in the foot itself. Thus, 
also, is it with the nictating membrane over the eye. Its 
office is in the front of the eye; but its body is lodged in the 
back part of the globe, where it lies safe, and where it en- 
cumbers nothing. 

65. What are tendons? 

Tendons are not only necessary as pulleys to the bones, 
but to give the limbs a proper form, and preserve their beau- 
tiful symmetry. Tendons are seldom required, except where 
muscles are inserted into bones. There is no tendon in the 
heart, the stomach, the bowels, or the gullet; these do not 
require them, for the motions are wholly contractile, and 
need no lever power. But where tendons pass over bones 
and traverse joints, the force is concentrated into narrow 
bounds, and their long cords being fixed to the extremities of 
the muscles, pull the bones, and raise them in obedience to 
our will. Tendons have no visible nerves, and little or no 
motion. 

66. What is cartilage? 

Cartilage is intermediate in hardness with bone, and 
what are called the soft parts — it is firm and resisting, and 
yet it has a great deal of elasticity. In some parts of the 
body there are cartilages serving for continuations of bones, 
such as those which continue the ribs and connect them to 
the breast-bone, and they are exactly similar to bones from 
which the earthly parts have been dissolved by an acid. 

67. The cartilaginous crusts which cover the auricular ends of bones 
are of a very beautiful and peculiar structure. If a piece of bone be 
sawn towards its articular end, till all be cut through, and then the 
remaining part, and the cartilage covering it be torn asunder, the cartilage 
will be found to present an infinity of fibers set perpendicularly on the 
surface of the bone. When a portion of the bone with its articular 
cartilage has been soaked in water for some weeks, the cartilage is 



26 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"We censure Nature for a span too short; 
That span too short we tax as tedious too; 
Fortune, invention, all expedients tire, 
To lash the lingering moments into speed." — Young. 



found to have lost its smooth surface and cohesion, and looks exactly 
as if the bone had been covered with white velvet. 

68. What are ligaments? 

Ligaments are composed of numerous straight fibers col- 
lected together, and arranged into short bands of various 
breadth, parallel or radiating, and interwoven with others 
which cross them. Sometimes the ligament is so formed as to 
surmount the articular ends of two bones which move upon 
one another, and here it is called a capsule. Ligaments are 
not extensible nor elastic; hence, when any attempt is made 
to stretch them too far, great pain is the result, and inflam- 
mation follows, and they are said to be sprained. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE INTERNAL ORGANS OF THE HUMAN FRAME: THE 
HEART, LUNGS, LIVER, STOMACH, BRAIN, ETC. 

69. Horv is blood formed? 

The food which we eat is masticated and afterwards 
swallowed; it is then received into the stomach, where it is 
prepared by digestion for the nourishment of the body. Here 
there is a fluid formed which changes the food into a sub- 
stance called chyme, which, passing into the several intes- 
tines, is there converted into a milky liquor denominated 
chyle. This is the fluid matter from which the blood is 
formed. 

70. What is the composition of blood? 

The blood may be described as consisting of innumer- 
able cells suspended in a gelatinous fluid. These cells or 
globules are formed of thin transparent sacs, evolving a red- 
dish fluid, the quantity and quality of which undergo con- 
stant changes, in consequence of its passing to and fro vessels 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



27 





"Blest 


son of 


foresight. 


lord 


of 


fate! 






That awful independen 


t of to-morrow 


J 








Whose 


work is 


done; 


who triumphs 


in the 


past; 




Whose 


yesterday- 


s look 


backward 


with 


a 


smile. 


"— Y 


DUNG. 



containing a denser fluid. As a general rule, the deeper or 
lighter color of the blood may be said to depend on the 
greater or smaller number of the globules. The color may 
also become darker although the globules are diminished; 
and this is caused by the blood cells assuming a more globu- 
lar form, through its action of passing in the vessel containing 
the denser fluids, and reflects the rays of light in a different 
manner. 

71 . How is the blood in the human bod]) circulated and 
purified? 

First, thq heart sends the blood to all the capillaries 
through one set of blood-vessels called arteries. Then the 
blood is brought back to the heart by another set of blood- 
vessels called veins. Next by the blood which returns by the 
veins is impure, and is sent by another set of arteries from the 
heart into the lungs, to be purified by the air we breathe. 
Then it is brought back to the heart by another set of veins. 
Thus there are two sets of arteries and veins through which 
the blood is all made to pass; first, through the body and 
back to the heart for the purpose of nourishment, and then 
through the lungs and back for the purpose of purification. 

72. The right side of the heart receives and sends out the impure 

blood. The upper division re- 
ceives it from the body through 
two large veins. Then the blood 
passes to the lower division of 
the heart, where it is sent to 
the lungs through one large ar- 
tery with two branches, one for 
each lung. This is the pulmon- 
ary artery. The left side of the 
heart receives and sends out 
the pure blood. The upper 
portion receives it from the 
lungs through three large veins. 
Then the blood passes to the 
lower division of the heart when 
it is sent to the capillariet all 
over the body through one large 
artery called the aorta. 




28 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"All men think all men mortal but themselves; 
Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate 
Strikes through their wounded hearts the sudden dread." — Young. 



73. Why is the blood regarded as so important an agent 
in animal economy? 

Because the blood is the vehicle of life to every atom of 
our organization. By properties peculiar to itself, all the 
various fluids of our body are produced from it, and every 
particle of bone, muscle, membrane, nerve, and vessel must 
have existed as an ingredient of the blood, and have been 
conveyed to its appropriate place by this circulating spring of 
energy and nourishment. No vital action is maintained with- 
out blood, and should it cease to flow through the brain, all 
the sense would be speedily shut up, and every function 
speedily superseded. 

74. In the accompanying engraving the circulation of the blood as 
performed by a single heart is depicted: V represents the ventricle, or 
strong muscular bag of the heart, which when filled with blood contracts 
upon it, just as any other muscle does, and so forces out the contents 

through the pipe which arises from it, called the 
aorta, just as the contents of an india-rubber bag 
are squeezed out through a pipe fixed in its neck. 
The only difference is, that whereas an external 
force squeezes the bag. the heart, being muscular, 
has a power of contraction of its own, and, as it 
were, squeezes itself; and then, just like the india- 
rubber bag which regains its shape when the pres- 
sure is removed, so the heart, when it has squeezed 
out all the blood, dilates itself again, and is ready 
to contract anew. The blood having been -poured 
into the great artery, goes through branches up to 
the head, and down to the lower part of the body, 
where its minute or capillary terminations are seen 
to end in veins. Those from the lower part of the 
body form an inferior great vein; those from the 
upper, a superior: and the two veins terminate sep- 
arately into a bag A, called the auricle. The auricle 
is not nearly so strong as the ventricle, because it 
has nothing to do with forcing the blood over the 
body: it is intended merely as a receptacle for the 
venous blood, till the ventricle be ready to receive 
it. The auricle is constantly full of blood, which 
flows to it through the veins in an equable stream, 
so that whenever the emptied ventricle dilates, the 
blood from the auricle rushes in, and distends it 
for a renewed contraction. The arteries are a set 
of tubes both dilatable and elastic. Hence at the mo- 
ment when the ventricle contracts, the blood which is forced into them 
distends them, increasing their diameter, and producing the feeling com- 
municated to the fingers placed over them, which is called the pulse. 
The number of the pulse is therefore the number of contractions which 
the heart is making in a minute; and at the moment when the ventricle 
dilates, the artery, having the distending force taken off, contracts on 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 29 

"At thirty man suspects himself a fool, 
Knows it at forty, and amends his plan." — Young. 



its contents. It would now drive part of the blood back again into the 
ventricle were it not for a valve placed in the artery at its origin, 
which shuts down the moment the pressure comes on it backwards, so 
that the force of the elasticity of the artery is expended in propelling 
the blood forward, not in an equable stream but in successive waves. 
Again; when the ventricle contracts to throw its blood into the aorta, it 
would throw back an equal portion into the auricle, were not a valve 
placed there also, which shuts the moment the ventricle contracts. 

75. Why have veins a blue or black appearance, al- 
though blood is of a red color? 

Because the oxygen which the blood originally contains 
is absorbed as it passes through its course of circulation, and 
the blood is discolored. But when it is again sent through 
the lungs, it receives a fresh supply of oxygen and regains 
its color. 

76. Why are veins sometimes seen to swell? 

As long as the veins that proceed from the organs are 
free, the blood that arrives in them from the arteries runs on 
and does not accumulate in them; but if the veins are com- 
pressed, or cannot empty themselves of the blood always 
arriving by the arteries, and finding no place in the veins, ac- 
cumulates on the tissue of the organ, distends the blood- 
vessels, and augments, more or less, its volume, particularly 
if its physical properties can undergo these changes. The 
swelling of the brain, by the difficulty of the circulation 
happens every time that the blood has more difficulty in pass- 
ing through the lungs; and as that generally takes place in 
expiration, the brain swells in this instance so much more in 
proportion as the expiration is more complete and of larger 
continuation. 

77. Why is a ligature tied round the arm when it is bled? 

Because the veins have valves placed in them at certain 
distances, which prevent the blood from flowing backward 
from the heart towards the extremities; when the ligature is 
tied the blood is constantly arriving from below, because the 
pressure is not great enough to obstruct the arteries, but it 



30 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Then say not man's 


imperfect, Heaven in 


fault; 




Say 


rather, man's as 


perfect 


as he 


ought; 








His 


knowledge measured to 


his 


state and 


pl 


ace; 


His 


time a moment, 


and a 


point 


his space.' 




-Pope. 



cannot get up past the bandage; the veins are therefore dis- 
tended and become prominent, so as easily to be seen and 
punctured; and then as the blood cannot get down the arm 
again on account of the valves, it is necessitated to flow 
out at the orifice. 

78. Why does moderate cold act as a stimulant to the 
system ? 

Because cold repels the blood from the surface, braces 
and contracts the integuments, and lessens the transpiration. 
The thinner and superfluous quantity of the circulating fluid 
is no longer thrown from the surface, but is drained off in the 
fluid state, and thus all the heat which would have been 
requisite for its conversion into vapor is preserved, and affords 
additional nourishment to the system. 

79. Why does fear cause the cheeks to turn pale, while 
rage makes them red? 

Because, when persons are affected by fear, the respira- 
tion and the afflux of arterial blood are diminished, and pale- 
ness of the skin consequently ensues; but when the passions 
are excited, respiration and the afflux of arterial blood are 
increased, and a flushed state of the cheeks follows. 

80. Why is a pale cheek and blanched lip an indication 
of disease? 

Because the lesser or greater number of globules present 
in the blood is made known in the one case by the pallor of 
the cheek, and in the other by its florid appearance. And as 
these red globules are the carriers of oxygen, and consequent- 
ly in a great measure the exciters of vital action, it follows 
that the general state of the health is necessarily regulated by 
the supply of these important agents. 

81 . Why is headache increased by a fit of coughing? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



31 



"We gaze around; 
We read their movements; we sigh; and while 
We sigh, we sink, and are what we deplored." — Young. 



Because expiration assists the heart in propelling the 
blood, and as the act of coughing considerably increases 
expiration, the flow of blood to the brain is greatly aug- 
mented, and the consequent distended state of the vessels 
adds to the aching of the head. 



82. What are the lungs? 

The two lungs are placed, on each side of the spine, in 
hollow spaces formed by the arching of the ribs. They 
may be compared to large pieces of sponge, which alternately 
suck in and squeeze out the blood of the body and the air 
of the surrounding atmosphere. The air passes and re- 
passes by the same tubes. The air-tubes, commencing with 
the wind-pipe, and branching off frequently in different direc- 
tions, become gradually smaller and more numerous until 
they terminate in minute expansions, which are the air-cells 

of the lungs. The blood 
is raised into the lungs by 
one set of tubes or vessels 
termed arteries, and passes 
back by another set of ves- 
sels termed veins. When 
the ribs are raised and the 
floor of the chest drawn 
down by the muscles of inspiration, the walls of the chest 
fall in, or when they are brought nearer together by the 
muscles of expiration, the due proportion of air and blood 
is, by gentle pressure, sent out from the interior of the 
lungs. A firm and elastic membrane lines the inside of 
the chest, and the same membrane passing back, covers 
in the lungs, forming their outer coat. By this doubling 
of the membrane, the lungs without being attached except 
at their roots, where the lobes enter, are held by their own 
elastic action in close contiguity to the chest, and thus they 
move freely with its movements. 




TaC\ 



32 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Man flies from time, and time from man; too soon 
In sad divorce this double flight must end." — Young. 



83. The right lung is divided into three parts or lobes; the left 

lung is divided into two lobes, 
between which is a space 
where the point of the heart 
lies. Each lung is contained 
in a small membranous bag 
called the pleura, and the air- 
vessels which are connected 
with the windpipe, through 
which we breathe, run along 
between the blood-vessels in 
the lungs, and so give to 
them that quantity of air 
which is required to change 
the color of the blood and to 
render it' fit for circulation. 
The accompanying engraving 
will serve to illustrate the 
structure and position of the 
lungs: in the center is a mem- 
&§?/&?3f* ; < \ ;^ \^i £ brane which divides the chest. 

til 



The ribs are cut off, so as 
to show the inside of the 
chest. The diaphragm which 
divides the chest from the 
abdomen has been removed. 
The three lobes of the right 
hmg and the two lobes of the left lung are shown in their proper posi- 
tions; g is the windpipe through which air is admitted. 




84. Why are the lungs capable of indicating whether 
an infant found dead has been still-born or not? 

Because lungs which have never breathed are heavier 
than water, and sink; but lungs which have breathed, if 
only once, are lighter than water, and swim. 



85. The lungs, previously to birth, are compressed like a squeezed 
sponge, and expand whenever the pressure is taken off. The moment 
they expand the air rushes in by the nostrils and mouth; and the force 
with which it enters causes the expansion a little beyond the natural 
state. This acts as a stimulus upon the muscles, which immediately 
contract, diminish the cavity of the chest, and, in conjunction with the 
elasticity of {Jie lungs, expel the air till the lungs are again reduced 
to less than their natural capacity, and this stimulates the antagonists 
of the former muscles, namely, those which expand the chest, and they 
assist the pressure of the atmosphere in again filling the lungs. The 
expansion of the lungs is always produced by their own elasticity, for 
no muscular apparatus could work so fine a structure; but the expansion 
of the chest gives room; and the contraction of the chest again occasions 
the expulsion. Thus the lungs are set going by atmospheric pressure 
and elasticity; and the action is kept up and regulated by this and 
muscular force conjointly. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



33 



"Life's cares are comforts; such by Heaven designed; 
He that has none must make them or be wretched." — Young. 



86. Why does the chest 
heave when we breathe? 

Because when we in- 
spire the air, the ribs are 
drawn upward and out- 
ward, and the diaphragm 
at the same time is forced 
down. When we expire 
the air, the ribs return to 
their natural place, whilst 
the diaphragm is again 
drawn up. 



87. In the accompanying il- 
lustration, the front half of the 
ribs being cut away, the in- 
terior of the chest is exposed. 
C C is the cavity of the chest, 
empty. D D D D the diaphragm, 
rising high in the center and 
descending very low at the sides and behind. The white space is its 
tendonous portion. The lower part is muscle that contracts to draw 
it downward. A A is the abdomen. 




88. What is the liver, and how are its functions per- 
formed? 

The liver lies horizontally on the right side of the body 
immediately below the diaphragm, and is protected by the 
interior ends of the lower ribs. Its function is to secrete 
the greenish-yellow fluid, the gall or bile, which is conveyed 
from the liver by a canal called the hepatic duct. On the 
lower surface of the liver is situated a small pear-shaped 
bag, the gall bladder, which is also furnished with a duct, 
callecLthe crystic duct, which unites with the duct from 
the liver, and forms the common biliary duct. 



89. What is the composition of the brain? 
The brain is composed of two substances, namely, of 
a gray-colored pulp, and of a white fibrous texture. The 



34 n KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Far as creation's ample range extends, 
The scale of sensual, mental powers ascends." — Pope. 

gray pulp is the glandular or active substance, and is made 
up, like other glands, of minute points or cavities, from 
which proceed the finest conducting tubes. These tubes, 
intertwining and uniting in bundles within the brain, are 
called the cerebral fibers, and they constitute the white 
substance occupying, for the most part, the central and under 
portions of the brain. The gray substance lies chiefly on 
and near the surface, and also in the neighborhood of those 
cavities within the brain, which are called its ventricles. 
The brain is separated by a firm membrane into two distinct 
organs, the great brain and the small brain. The great 
brain is situated in the front and upper part of the skull, 
and its surface is marked by depressions and elevations 
which, resembling the folds of a garment, are called its 
convolutions. The small brain lies underneath at the back 
of the skull; its surface is formed by close layers of the 
gray substance, presenting a laminated appearance. Four 
united roots or stems of the fibrous substance, two from each 
brain, with distinct portions of the gray or glandular sub- 
stance at regular intervals interspersed, constitute the spinal 
cord. Nerves pass out of the brain and spinal cord, and 
are distributed to every organ of the body. 

90. The functions of the great and small brain appear to be reg- 
ulated by a system of mutual dependence and co-operation. During 
wakefulness the great brain, aided by the influence of the small brain, 
and also by that of the spinal cord, conducts and regulates the conscious 
movements of the body. But during sleep, when the great brain relaxes 
the reins of government, and gives them over to the small brain, this 
organ, being left to its own laws, directs, through its own fibers and 
those of the spinal cord, the movements of the heart, lungs, and other 
internal organs, acting at the same time on the muscles; and while 
the small brain flows into all these, there results a plenary equilibrium 
of the body, and a general co-operation of all its parts for the mutual 
support of each other, and for the preservation of the whole. 

91. Why is it that although the brain and the spinal 
cord are so intimately connected, yet the brain is not affected 
by the violent movements which the spine is constantly 
making ? 

The evil is partly obviated by the elastic and partly by 
the non-elastic properties of the matter interposed between 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35 

"But of this frame the bearing and the ties, 
The strong connections, nice dependencies, 

Gradations just, has thy pervading soul looked through!" — Pope. 

■ 

the several layers of compact bone. By means of the 
elastic property of this matter, the head rides upon the 
summit of the column as*upon a pliant spring, while the 
canal of the spinal cord remains secure and uninvaded. 
By means of the soft and pulpy portion of this matter, the 
vibrations excited in the compact bone are absorbed point 
by point as they are produced; as many layers of this 
soft and pulpy substance, so many points of absorption of 
the tremors excited in the compact bone, so many barriers 
against the possibility of the transmission of a shock to the 
delicate nervous substance. 



92. Why may the form of the skull be sometimes 
changed without injuring the brain? 

Because the peculiar softness of the cerebral mass 
enables it to undergo those changes of its envelope without 
inconvenience. The brain, in proportion to its softness, 
will suffer percussions and pressures with less danger; and, 
on this account, new-born children whose bones are soft 
and moveable, may have their heads compressed, and even 
deformed, without any bad effect. 



93. Among some of the savage tribes a low brow is regarded as 
a beauty; and to secure this, the heads of infants are subjected to 
pressure from plates fixed on the topi of the head, by which means, 
the crown of the head becomes perfectly flat, while the back portion 
of it protrudes extensively. 



94. Why are the gums admirably fitted to receive the 
teeth? 

Because they not only serve as firm elastic cushions 
whereby they rapidly diffuse the force, and powerfully sup- 
port the teeth when forcibly employed, but by the vascular 
connection between them, in part supply them with nourish- 
ment. 



36 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"From an eye of tenderness, 
Let heavenly pity fall." — Young. 



95. By the manner in which teeth are implanted in the sockets, 
they are afforded an extensive surface of support. The force is not 
concentrated at the point, as in the case of a nail thrust into a board; 
T but is uniformly diffused over the 

— -**- whole surface of the fang, as may 

be seen in the annexed engraving, 
where the f&ngs of the middle tooth 
press on a surface, a a a, equal to 
four times that of the crown, b;~ 
so that supposing the pressure on 
the crown to be equal to* four 
pounds, being extended over the 
surface of the fangs, it is reduced 
to one pound on any given point 
of the root, and with a similar 
force upon the sockets. 

96. Why are the teeth of infants hidden rpithin the 
gums? 

Because the presence of teeth would not only be use- 
less, but would interrupt the process of sucking, by which 
means the infant is for some time nourished, and which act 
can be performed more efficiently, and with greater ease 
and comfort to the nurse, whilst the inside of the mouth and 
ges of the gums are smooth and soft. 




edge 



97. What renders it more probable that this is the effect of design 
is, that the teeth are imperfect while all the other parts of the mouth 
are perfect. The lips are perfect; the tongue is perfect; the cheeks, 
the jaws, the palate, the pharynx, the larynx, are all perfect; the teeth 
alone are not so. All these parts are called into use from the beginning. 

98. Why do new teeth sometimes make their appear- 
ance at an advanced age? 

In such cases the jaw was too small to contain the full 
number of the second set of teeth at the ordinary period of 
their renewal ; some of the teeth, therefore, remain in the 
jaw, which when others drop out make their appearance. 

99. Why have tears a globular form? 

Because the superfluous fluid secreted by the eye, of 
which fluid tears are composed, is discharged through a 
hole in the bone, of about the circumference of a goose 
quill, in these the tears become molded to this form. 

100. What is the form of the stomach! 

The stomach has the shape of the pouch of a bag-pipe, 
lies across the body; and the passage by which the food 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



37 



"Man marks not thee, marks not the mighty hand 
That, ever busy, wheels the silent spheres; 
Works in the secret deep." — Thomson. 



leaves it is somewhat higher in the body than the orifice by 
which the food enters; so that it is by the contraction of 
the muscular coat of the stomach, that the contents having 
undergone the application of the gastric juice, are gradually 
pressed out. 

101. Why is the free action of the 
pores of the skin essential to the health of 
the body? 

Because they act as a species of pipes 
through which the expended refuse matter 
is conveyed from the body. These tubes 
open through the cuticle or outer skin, 
and descend into the fine or underneath 
skin, and then form themselves into a coil 
as seen in the drawing. These tubes are 
hollow, like a pipe-stem, and their inner 
surface consists of wonderfully minute 
capillaries filled with impure venous blood. 
The capillaries of these tubes through the 
whole skin of the body are thus constantly 
exhaling the noxious and decayed par- 
ticles of the body. It is calculated that 
about three or four pounds of waste mat- 
ter pass off through the skin every twenty-four hours. 

102. Why is watered milk the most suitable food for 
the nourishment of the infant? 

Because this aliment has a close analogy to blood, and 
the greatest amount of nutrition is therefore afforded in an 
agreeable form, and by an easy method, whereas any other 
mode of supplying the same amount and quality of food 
would overtax the powers and functions of the infant. 

103. If a small drop of milk be* submitted to the microscope it 
will be found to manifest nearly the same appearances as a drop of 
blood will present. A multitude of minute pearly sphericles with the 
most perfect outline, reflecting light brilliantly from their center, and 
varying in magnitude from the 12,500th to the 3,000the part of an inch 

> in diameter, and even larger as seen floating in the fluid. The general 




38 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"My pulse as yours doth temperately keep time, 
And makes as healthful music." — Shakspere. 



magnitude and number of these globules vary much, not only in the 
case of one species of animal compared with another, but with different 
individuals of the same species, and even with the same Individual 
under different circumstances. The constituent upon which the nutritive 
properties of milk mainly depends is butter; in this respect woman's 
milk is found to be by far the richest, as will be seen from the follow- 
ing comparative results: — 

Woman. Cow. Goat. Ass. 

Fat 8.97 2.68 4.56 1.29 

Sugar 1.20 5.68 9.12 6.29 

Protein 1.93 8.95 4.38 1.95 

Water 87.90 82.69 81.94 90.47 

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

1 04. Why is it better for mankind that the action of the 
internal organs of the body is hidden from sight? 

Because were we sensible of the organic motions — did 
we know when the heart beats, the lungs play, and the 
stomach digests, the consciousness could not promote, but 
might disturb the due and orderly course of these processes. 

105. We do not know when the heart dilates to receive the vital 
current, nor when it contracts to propel it with renewed impetus through 
the viscera; nor when the blood rushes to the lungs to give out its 
useless and noxious particles; nor when the air rushes to the blood to 
take up those particles, to replace them by others, and thus to purify 
and renovate the vital fluid. Many processes of this kind are con- 
tinually going on within us during every moment of our existence, but 
we are no more conscious of them than we are of the motion of the 
fluids in the blade of grass on which, we tread. On the contrary, when 
an external object produces in a sentient nerve that change of state 
which we denote by the words "an impression;" when the sentient 
nerve transmits this impression to the brain; when the brain is thereby 
brought into the state of perception, the animal life is in active opera- 
tion, and percipient or conscious existence takes place. 

106. Why may the organic life exist after the animal 
life has perished? 

Because the animal life is extinguished when sensation 
is abolished, and voluntary motion can be performed no 
more. But disease may abolish sensation and destroy the 
power of voluntary motion, while circulation, respiration, 
secretion, excretion, and the entire circle of organic functions 
continue to be performed. 

107. The disease known as catalepsy affords the most striking 
illustration of this extraordinary condition of the system; and the fol- 
lowing is a case in point: A young lady was seized with a fit of 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 39 

"With milky blood the heart is overflown, 
Is soothed and sweetened by the social sense." — Thomson. 



catalepsy while employed in netting; she was in the act of passing the 
needle through the mesh: in that position she became immovably rigid, 
exhibiting in a pleasing form a figure of death — like sleep, beyond the 
power of art to imitate, or the imagination to conceive. Her forehead 
was serene, her features perfectly composed. The paleness of her color, 
and her breathing, which at a distance was scarcely perceptible, operated 
in rendering the similitude to marble more exact and striking. The 
position of her fingers, hands, and arms, was altered with difficulty, 
but preserved every form of flexure they acquired; nor were the muscles 
of the neck exempted from this law, her head maintaining every situation 
in which the hand could place it, as firmly as her limbs. 

108. Why is it erroneous to suppose that deep-seated 
vital organs have what is ordinarily termed "feeling?" 

Because (taking the heart as an illustration) the pulsa- 
tion of the heart may be felt through the side, and those 
arteries which lie near the surface may be felt to beat. 
After violent' exertion or excitement, too, the pulsation of 
the heart may be felt, and in imagination at least, if not 
in reality, heard without the application of the hand to 
any part of the body. But the circulation of the blood 
is never felt, and the heart itself gives us no internal evi- 
dence of its existence. 

109. A well-authenticated case of the insensibility of the heart to 
feeling of any kind, is furnished by the celebrated Harvey, the discoverer 
of the circulation of the blood, as follows: — A young nobleman had a 
portion of the parietes of the side destroyed by an abscess, conse- 
quent upon a fall. The wound healed, but without the restoration of 
the parts which had been destroyed by the abscess, and the heart and 
lungs could be touched through the opening without imparting any 
feeling that they were touched. Harvey says: "When I paid my respects 
to this young nobleman, he made no concealment, but exposed the left 
side of his breast, when I saw a cavity into which I could introduce 
my fingers and thumb. Astonished with the novelty, I again and again 
explored the wound, and first marveling at the extraordinary nature 
of the cure, I set about the examination of the heart. Taking it in one 
hand and placing the finger of the other on the pulse of the wrist, 
I satisfied myself that it was indeed the heart which I grasped. I then 
brought him to the Ring (Charles I.), that he might behold and touch 
so extraordinary a thing, and that he might perceive, as I did, that 
unless when we touched the outer skin, or when he saw our fingers in 
the cavity, this young nobleman knew not that we touched the heart." 

1 1 0. Why do the interior organs of the body £eep in 
the places assigned them, when the body itself is moved 
about in every direction? 

Because the various parts are tied or fastened to the 
body in such a manner as to prevent them slipping from 
their places. 



40 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"What a piece of work is man! 
How noble in reason! how infinite in faculties. 
In form and moving, how express and admirable! 
In action, how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a God." 



111. The heart is placed between two soft lobes of the lungs, and 
is tied to the mediastinum and to the pericardium, which pericardium 
is not only itself a very strong membrane, but adheres firmly to the 
duplicature of the mediastinum, and, by its point, to the middle tendon 
of the diaphragm. The heart is also sustained in its place by the 
great blood-vessels which issue from it. The lungs are tied to the 
sternum by the mediastinum before, to the vertebrae by the pleura 
behind. It seems indeed to be the very use of the mediastinum (which 
is a membrane that goes straight through the middle of the thorax, 
from the breast to the back) to keep the contents of the thorax in 
their places; in particular to hinder one lobe of the lungs from incom- 
moding another, or the parts of the lungs from pressing upon each 
other when we lie on the side. The liver is fastened in the body by 
two ligaments; the first, which is large and strong, comes from the 
covering of the diaphragm, and penetrates the substance of the liver; 
the second is the umbilical vein, which, after birth, degenerates into 
a ligament. The first, which is the principal, fixes the liver in its 
situation whilst the body holds an erect posture; the second prevents 
it from pressing on the diaphragm when we lie down; and both together 
sling or suspend the liver when we lie upon our backs, so that it may 
not compress or obstruct the vein to which belongs the important office 
of returning the blood from the body to the heart. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE SENSES SEEING, HEARING, SMELLING, TASTING, 

AND FEELING. 

112. Why are the senses of seeing, hearing, tasting, 
and smelling placed in the head? 

Because the head is the most elevated part of the body, 
and is capable of moving independently of the rest of the 
fabric. Thus the organs of sense,. which puts us in con- 
nection with the external world, which render us susceptible 
of pleasure, and which give us notice of the approach of 
objects capable of exciting pain, are placed where external 
bodies may be brought most conveniently and completely 
in contact with them, and where alone they can be efficient 
as the sentinels of the system. 

1 1 3. How do we know that the powers of seeing de- 
pend more upon the mechanical exercise of the eye itself 
than upon mental capacity? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 41 

"And in the silence of his calm abode, 
In nature's works he worshiped nature's God." 

— Matilda Houston. 



Because many persons in certain departments of life, 
are capable of discerning objects more readily in connec- 
tion with their pursuits than better informed or more intel- 
lectual persons who have seldom or never seen those objects ; 
thus a sailor will descry the various phenomena of the 
elements, which are invisible to the learned and refined 
passenger; and the plowman will point out certain objects 
in a landscape to the wondering student who has just escaped 
from his labors. On the other hand, persons who are much 
accustomed to reading are enabled to take in, as it were, 
the contents of a whole page of a book, while another per- 
son less accustomed to reading has only been able to 
master two or three lines. 

1 1 4. Why is it erroneous to suppose that on entering 
a room we see all the objects in it at once? 

Because this apparently simultaneous view arises from 
the motions of the eye, which admit oi great objects being 
successively presented to it with a rapidity of which we are 
unconscious. 

115. It is easy to show that if the eye were without motion, 
steadily fixed in the socket, the vision would be quickly lost; that 
objects of the greatest brilliancy would be obscurely seen, or disappear. 
For example, let us fix the eye on one point — a thing somewhat difficult 
to do, owing to the very disposition in the eye to be constantly mov- 
ing; but suppose that by repeated -attempts we have at length acquired 
the power of directing the eye steadily on an object, when we have done 
so, we shall find that the whole scene becomes more and more obscure, 
and finally vanishes. Let us fix the eye on the corner of the frame 
of the principal picture in the room; at first everything around the 
room will be distinct; in a very little time the impression will become 
weaker, objects will appear dim, and then the eye will have an almost 
uncontrollable desire to wander; if this be resisted, the impressions 
of the figures in the picture will first fade; for a time we shall see 
the gilded frame alone; but this also will become faint. When we 
have thus ascertained the fact, if we change the direction of the eye 
but ever so little, the whole scene will at once again be perfect to us. 

1 1 6. Why is incessant motion of the eye essential to the 
continued exercise of the organ? 

Because when the eye is fixed upon a point, the lights, 
shades, and colors of objects continuing to strike upon the 
same part of the retina, the nerve is exhausted; but when 



42 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"H& that is giddy thinks the world turns round." — Shakspere. 

the eye shifts there is a new exercise of the nerve; the part 
of the retina that was opposed to the lights is now opposed 
to the shades, and what was opposed to different colors is 
now opposed to other colors, and the variation in the 
exciting cause produces a renewed sensation. 

1 1 7. Why do we \nom> that the ideas rve obtain of the 
size % shape, and distance of objects depend mainly upon the 
education of the sight? 

Because optical illusions, however nearly they resemble 
realities when they first meet the eye, are satisfactorily 
proved to have no existence, by the attentive and correct 
use of that very organ which gave rise to the error. 

118. Dr. Cheselden, by a surgical operation, procured sight to a 
very intelligent person who was born blind, and he observed the 
manner in which this sense was developed in the young man. "When 
he saw the light for the first time, he knew so little how to judge of 
distances, that he believed the objects which he saw touched his eyes, 
as the things which he felt touched his skin." During the time of 
his blindness he had received such an imperfect idea of colors which, 
by a very strong light, he was then able to distinguish, that a suffi- 
cient impression had not been left by which he could again recognize 
them. Indeed, when he saw them, he said the colors he then saw 
were not the same as those he had seen formerly; he did not know 
the form of any object; nor could he distinguish one object from 
another, however different their size and configuration might be; when 
objects were shown to him which he had known formerly by the touch, 
he looked at them with attention, and observed them carefully in order 
to recognize them again; but as he had too many objects to retain at 
once, he forgot the greater part of them, and when he first learnt, as 
he said, to see and to know objects, he forgot a thousand for one that 
he recollected. 

It was two months before he discovered that pictures represented 
solid bodies; until that time he had considered them as planes and 
surfaces differently colored and diversified by a variety of shades; 
but when he began to conceive that these pictures represented solid 
bodies, in touching the canvas of the picture with his hand he expected 
to find something solid upon it, and he was much astonished when, 
upon touching those parts which seemed round and unequal, he found 
them flat and smooth like the rest. 

He could not support much light at first, and every object seemed 
very large to him; but after he had seen larger things, he considered 
the first smaller; he thought there was nothing beyond the limits of 
his sight. The same operation was performed on the other eye about 
a year after the first, and it succeeded equally well. At first he 
saw objects with his second eye much larger than with the other, but 
not so large, however, as he had seen them with his first eye; and when he 
looked at the same object with both eyes at once, he said that it 
appeared twice as large as with the first eye. 

1 1 9. Why is sight essential to the firmness of most of 
our attitudes? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 43 

"Time* wasted is existence, used is life, 
And bare existence, man, to live ordained. 
Wrings and oppresses with enormous weight." — Young. 

Because we judge of the position of our bodies by other 
bodies which we see around us. Thus, when we are de- 
prived of this means of judging of our equilibrium, as when 
we are on a house, or any elevated place where we are 
only surrounded by the air, our standing becomes uncertain, 
and it sometimes happens that we feel giddy, and cannot 
stand at all. 

120. The utility of sight is still greater if the base of support is 
very narrow; a rope dancer could not stand erect if he were not 
constantly directed by the eye as to the position necessary to be pre- 
served, in order that the perpendicular drawn from his center of grav- 
ity may fall upon the base of support. This connection between sight 
and attitude is further demonstrated by the uncertain postures which 
blind persons assume. 

121. Why does the pupil of the eye contract and dilate ? 
Because when it is necessary to exclude excess of light, 

the pupil through which the light enters may gradually or 
wholly exclude it by contraction ; and when a large amount 
of .light is desired, the dilation of the pupil in a similar 
degree ensures the admission of a greater number of rays. 

122. The chamber of the eye is a camera-obscura, which, when 
the light is too small, can enlarge its opening; when too strong, can 
again contract it; and that without any other assistance than of its 
own exquisite machinery. 

1.23. Why is a person unable to discern objects when 
passing from a strongly-illuminated room into one com- 
paratively dark, or into the open air at night? 

Because the contraction of the pupil, which was adapted 
to the strong light to which it had been previously exposed, 
admits so little light to the retina that no sensation is pro- 
duced. The pupil, however, after a while dilates, and, 
admitting more light, objects are perceived which were 
before invisible. 

1 24. Why does the eye of a person suffer inconvenience 
and pain in passing from a dark room into a light one? 

Because, while the observer remains in thje dark or less 
illuminated room, the pupil is dilated to that degree so as 
to admit into the eye as great a quantity of light as the 



44 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

* 'There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." — Shakspere. 

structure of the organ allows of. When he passes suddenly 
into the strongly-illuminated room the flood of light arriv- 
ing through the widely dilated pupil acts with such violence 
upon the retina as to produce pain, which necessarily calls 
for the relief and protection of the organ. The iris, then, 
by an action peculiar to it, contracts the dimension of the 
pupil so as to admit proportionally less light, and the eye 
is gradually opened with impunity. 

125. Why is the pupil of the eye so called? 
Because if we look into the eye of another we shall 

perceive a little image of our own face, like a very minute 
child or pupil— hence the name. 

126. Why are some persons short-sighted? 
Because the rays of light are brought to a focus before 

they reach the retina, and 
consequently produce an in- 
distinct picture on the ret- 
ina. This will be more 
clearly illustrated by the 
accompanying engraving. 

127. The remote causes of this defect of the eye may be various; 
as too great density of the humors — too great a convexity either of the 
cornea or the lens — and from the space between the retina and the 
lens being too short. Where it depends on too much convexity, as age 
approaches, it may disappear; but where too great density is the cause, 
age is apt rather to aggravate than to relieve it. For while in the 
young the convexity both of the cornea and the lens is greater than in 
advanced life, the less density of the humors counterbalances it; and 
again as life advances, the more scanty supply of humors, along with 
the diminishing convexity, are neutralized by the increasing density; 
therefore, if these keep pace with each other the eye remains to a 
very protracted period of life without the necessity for artificial assist- 
ance. 

128. Why do the eyes sometimes become "bloodshot" ? 

Because when the eye is healthy its blood-vessels are 
so small that only the colorless portion of the blood finds 
its way through them. But when the eye is inflamed, the 
coats of these vessels becoming weaker, they are readily dis- 
tended by the impulse of the blood against them; they 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 45 

" 'Tis greatly wise to walk with our best hours, 
And ask them what report they've borne to heaven." — Young. 

then become enlarged, the red globules find their way into 
them, and they are rendered red and visible to the naked eye. 

129. Why, when the sight is impaired in old age, are 
persons compelled to wear spectacles, or to hold objects at 
a distance from them in order to distinguish them perfectly? 

Because the diminished refractive power of the organ 
is accompanied by a divergence of the rays of light which 
tends to confuse and obscure the sight. By holding objects 
at a distance the divergence becomes diminished, and the 
same effect is produced by convex glasses. 

130. It is customary with opticians to place in the hands of a 
person requiring spectacles a book or newspaper, and by the distance 
at which the one or the other is instantly herd from the sight, tfie 
optician is enabled to judge of the degree of the defect of the vision 
and the kind of glass that is required. 

131. Why does the eye lose its luster in old age and 
sickness ? 

Because the luster of the healthy eye is produced by the 
action of the muscles of the eye-ball maintaining it firmly in 
its place, pressing it against the fatty cushion on which it 
rests, and giving to it that tension necessary to render the 
corner prominent, clear, and full. In old age and sickness 
the muscles of the eye partake of the general debility of 
the system, and its functions are thus deranged. 

132. Why do some persons squint? 

Strabismus, or squinting, is caused by one or more of 
the muscles of the eye being shortened or elongated; and by 
the derangement of their action the pupil is consequently 
carried out of the proper axis of vision. 

133. This defect is cured by a very simple operation. The short- 
ened or elongated muscle is cut down by a skillful operator. The false 
position of the pupil is immediately rectified by the division of the 
disordered muscle that induced obliquity by its irregular action. The 
divided muscle in healing shortens or lengthens, and during the hearing 
process suits itself to the exigencies of the case, and in a short time 
re-unites. 

1 34. Why when we look for some time at a white spot 
upon a black ground, and afterwards direct the eye to a 
white ground, do we perceive a black spot? 



46 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Each friend by fate snatched from us, is a plume 
Plucked from the wing of vain humanity." — Young. 

Because the retina of the eye has become insensible in 
the point which was formerly fatigued by the white light. 
In the same manner, after the retina has been some time 
without acting in one of its points, whilst the others have 
acted, the point which has been in repose becomes of an 
extreme sensibility, and on this account objects seem as if 
they were spotted. 

135. In this manner it is explained why, after having looked for 
a long time at a red spot, white bodies appear as if spotted with 
green; in this case the retina has become insensible to the red rays, 
and we know that a ray of white light, from which the red is subtracted, 
produces the sensation of green. 

136. Why does a flash of light from the eye generally 
follow from a violent blow on that organ or the surround- 
ing parts? 

Because light, or some degree or modification of light, 
is the only impression of which the eye is susceptible; and 
therefore every effect upon the parts of the eye which are 
essential to vision only must be a sensation of light. 

137. A violent blow on the eye appears as an instantaneous flash 
of light, and this effect is produced, not only when the eye itself is 
struck, but when there is a violent concussion of the head, which we 
may suppose to be transmissable to the surrounding parts of the eye, 
and so to the eyeball itself. If a person walking hastily and heedlessly 
in the dark strikes his forehead violently against an object of resist- 
ance, then instantly, and before any pain is felt in the part which 
has received the stroke, a flash of light is seen by both eyes, brighter 
in proportion as the stroke is more violent. Thus, any sudden agita- 
tion produced in the exterior coats of the eyeball, from whatever source 
it may arise, always tells upon the sentient part of the eye as light, 
and never as pain or any other sensation. 

1 38. Why cannot a person distinguish minute objects 
in the water with his head likewise immersed in the fluid? 

Because, although there is sufficient difference between 
the density of the humors of the eye and that of the air, 
to bring the rays transmitted by the latter to a focus on the 
retina, there is not sufficient difference between the density 
of these humors and that of water, to do the same by rays 
transmitted through this fluid, so that such rays are not 
brought to a focus sufficiently soon. Hence divers in some 
places are in the habii, when they descend into the water, 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 47 

"And as he spoke a big round drop 
Fell bounding on his ample sleeve; 
A witness that he could not stop, 

A witness that we all believe." — Bloomfield. 

of using extremely convex glasses, in shape almost luce the 
lens of fishes, and turning their eyes by this means, as it 
were, into those of an aquatic animal. 

139. Why are the eyes furnished with lashes? 
Because they serve to ward of insects, and to protect 

the eye, from particles floating in the air. When the eye- 
lashes are humid, the little drops of moisture decompose the 
rays of light, and, even independently of humidity, they 
also partly resolve the light passing into the interior of 
the eye. 

140. When the eyelids are placed near each other, and the eye- 
lashes admit only a small quantity of light to pass at a time, the 
eyelashes, by separating into pencils the light which penetrates the 
eye, make bodies in ignition appear during the night as if they were 
surrounded with luminous rays. This appearance does not take place 
if the eyelashes are inverted, or merely turned in another direction. 
The vision of those persons who have lost their eyelashes is always 
more or less imperfect. 

141. Why are the eyes protected by eyebrows? 
The eyebrows have many uses. The projection which 

they form protects the eye against external violence; the 
hairs on account of their oblique direction, and the oily 
matter with which they are covered, prevent the perspira- 
tion from flowing towards or irritating the surface of that 
organ: they direct it towards the temple and the root of the 
nose. The color and the number of hairs of the eyebrows 
have an influence upon their use. They have generally 
some relation to the climate. The inhabitants of hot coun- 
tries have them very thick and black ; the inhabitants of cold 
countries may have them thick, but they are rarely black. 
The eyebrows protect the eyes from excess of light, par- 
ticularly when it comes from above, this effect is rendered 
still more conspicuous by the knitting of the brows. 

142. Of what use are eyelids? 

They cover the eye during sleep, and preserve it from 
the contact of extraneous particles flying about in the air, 
which might injure it; they defend it from sudden shocks, 



48 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Give every man thine ears, but, few thy voice; 
Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment." — Shakspere. 

by their almost instantaneous closure, and by their habitual 
motions, which are renewed at nearly equal intervals, they 
preserve it from the effects of long-continued contact of the 
air. The eyelids also moderate the force of a too brilliant 
light, and prevent the passage of any more of this fluid 
than what is necessary for vision without offending the 
eye. On the contrary, when the light is feeble, we sep- 
arate the eyelids to a considerable distance, in order to 
admit the passage of as great a quantity of light as possible 
to the interior of the eye. 

143. Why is the involuntary closing of the eyelid more 
advantageous than if it depended upon our ivill? 

Because, if the closing of the eyelid depended upon 
voluntary power, we might have gone to sleep forgetting to 
have closed it, thereby exposing the eye to considerable 
danger. But under the involuntary arrangement the lid 
is made to fall over the eye as drowsiness comes on, is kept 
there during sleep, and in the morning, owing to the delicacy 
of its structure, it transmits a sufficient quantity of light to 
the eye to arouse sensibility, and we awake. 

144. Horv is the process of hearing conducted? 

The folds of the outward ear conduct to its entrance, 
and into an outer passage, which, after running inward a 
short distance, is closed by a mem- 
brane called the drum. Behind this 
membrane is an inner passage, which 
terminates in the throat, which is called 
the trumpet. Warm air from the 
lungs therefore supplies the inner pas- 
sage, and the surrounding atmosphere 
fills the outer passage. When the 
modification of the atmosphere by 
which sounds are produced, flow into 
the outer passage, the drum of the ear is put upon the 
stretch, more or less, according to the force or loudness of 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 49 

"Life speeds away 
From point to point, though seeming to stand still." — Young. 

i 

the sound, as shown by the trick of calling loudly under the 
pretense of whispering in the ear. Behind the drum, in the 
hard bone, or the rock-like wall of the inner passage, are 
two small openings termed mastoid, which communicate with 
the inner cavities or chambers of the ear. There are two 
other openings closed by a thin transparent membrane, and 
the chambers excavated, as it were, in the rock-like bone, 
are, with the mastoid cells, filled with fluid. Within these 
chambers (called the labyrinth and semi-circular canals) 
the nerve of hearing spreads out between the folds of a most 
delicate membrane, receiving the impressions conveyed by 
the atmosphere or other conducting media, and communicat- 
ing them to the sense of hearing in the brain. 

145. Why do infants hear indistinctly) ? 

Because the bones of their ears are soft and cartilagin- 
ous; and of course, the tremulation excited in them by the 
motion of the air are comparatively weak. Young children 
accordingly are extremely fond of noise. It arouses their 
attention, and conveys to them the agreeable sensation of 
mind; but feeble sounds are not perceived, which gives in- 
fants, like deaf persons, the appearance of dullness or want 
of intelligence. 

146. Why are n>e compelled to use both ears in order 
to determine the direction of a sound? 

Because every sound comes more directly to one ear 
than to the other, and it is only by comparing the intensity 
of the two impressions, that we are capable of deciding 
whence the sound proceeds. 

147. If we close one ear perfectly, and cause a slight noise to be 
made in a dark place at a short distance, it would often be impossible 
to determine its direction; in using both ears this could be determined. 
If a person wakes in the night and hears a sound but cannot tell 
from what quarter it proceeds, he will turn his face full in the direc- 
tion from which he supposes the sound to come, thus availing himself 
of both ears; having determined this, and wishing to distinguish the 
sound, he will incline one ear only for this purpose. 

1 48. Why do persons who are partially deaf place their 
hand behind the ear, in order to hear more distinctly? 



50 . KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"A good nose is requisite, also, to smell out work for the other senses." 

Shakspere. 



Because the hand thus placed acts upon the same prin- 
ciple as the sounding board; that is to say, the sound re- 
verberates against it, and penetrates the ear, instead of 
passing by, which it would do, if no barrier existed. 

149. Why will a person who is partially deaf fre- 
quently hear more distinctly when addressed in a moderate 
tone* than when called to in a loud voice? 

Because in many cases of defective hearing, the im- 
paired organs are so extremely sensitive, that a loud voice 
acts like a concussion upon them, and thus defeats its own 
end; whereas a moderate tone adapts itself to the limited 
power of hearing, and thus makes a suitable impression. 

150. Why may the ticking of a watch he heard 
distinctly when it is placed against the teeth? 

Because sound is capable of being produced by the 
vibration of solid bodies without the intervention of the 
atmosphere, and in this instance the sound is conveyed from 
the teeth, through the bones of the face and the head, to 
the auditory nerves. 

151. How is the sense of smell produced? 

When we put a flower or a sweet scent of any kind 
to our nose and enjoy the smell of it, it is because the nerves 
lining our nostrils are touched by very small particles which 
fly off from the flower or scent. In the same way unpleas- 
ant smells are detected by minute noxious particles floating 
in the air, coming in contact with the nostrils. 

152. Why do persons "sniff up the air" when any 
agreeable odors are floating in it? 

Because when the nostrils are thus exerted, they act as 
a species of syphon, and withdraw a larger amount of the 
odor from the atmosphere than they otherwise would, so 
that the action of sniffing increases the pleasureable sense 
thus imparted. 

153. Why does closing the mouth increase the sense 
of smell? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 51 

"And next in order sad, Old Age we found : 

His beard all hoar, his eyes hollow and blind: 
With drooping cheer still poring on the ground." — Sackville. 

Because under that condition the respiratory current 
is drawn exclusively through the nose. On the contrary, 
when we wish to avoid a disagreeable odor, the end may be 
effected by keeping the mouth open, through which respira- 
tion will chiefly take place, and very little through the 
medium of the nose. 

1 54. Why are the organs of smelling and of tasting situ- 
ated so near to each other? 

Because the vicinity of these two senses forms a double 
guard in the selection of food. Were they placed in distant 
parts of the body, they could not so readily give mutual aid. 

155. Why is taste the least deteriorated by age of any 
of the senses? 

Because so long as the body exists it must necessarily 
be fed, and the organ by which this process is primarily 
accomplished is mercifully spared, while other senses less 
essential are subjected to decay. 

156. Why is touch considered to be the most important 
of all the senses? 

Because by touch we are enabled to know with greater 
certainty the properties of bodies; our hearing, seeing, and 
smelling may frequently deceive us and lead us into error, 
touch seldom does this, and in all cases of doubt when the 
other senses are engaged, touch steps in as umpire, and 
resolves the difficulty. 

157. The extreme sensibility of the touch of the blind is well 
known. A blind person deciphering a book by the aid of touch will, 
in general, read with fewer mistakes than are made by persons of 
ordinary intelligence when perusing a book by the aid of their sight. 
There are many remarkable instances of the intensity with which one 
portion of the senses may be exercised, and especially that of touch, 
when others are wanting; ordinary faculties taking upon themselves 
extraordinary functions, and thus in a great measure compensating for 
the deprivation which it has pleased Providence to inflict. A case 
in point is furnished by the following narrative:— 

James Mitchell, the son of a respectable parish minister in the 
County of Elgin, was deaf, dumb, and blind from birth. As he grew 
up, he discovered a most extraordinary acuteness in the senses of touch 
and smell, being very soon able by these to distinguish strangers from 
the members of his own family, and any little article that was appropri- 
ated to himself from what belonged to others. In childhood the most 



52 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin." — Shakspere. 



noticeable circumstance relating to him was an eager desire to strike 
upon his fore-teeth; this he would do for hours. When a stranger 
arrived, his smell would invariably inform him of the circumstance, and 
direct him to the place where the stranger was, whom he proceeded to 
survey by the sense of touch. In the remote situation where he resided 
male visitors were the most frequent, and therefore the first thing he 
generally did was to examine whether or not the stranger wore boots; 
if such were the case he would immediately quit the stranger and 
proceed to the stable, accurately examining the whip, and handling the 
horse with great care and the utmost seeming attention. It has occa- 
sionally happened that visitors have arrived in a carriage, and on such 
occasions he has never failed to go to the place where the carriage 
stood, examining the whole of it with much anxiety, and trying innu- 
merable times the elasticity of the springs. When he felt hungry he 
would approach his mother or sister, touching them in an expressive 
manner, and pointing to the apartment where the victuals were usually 
kept. If a dry pair of stockings were wanting, he would point to his 
legs, and, in short, intimate his various wishes in a similar way. On 
one occasion a pair of shoes was brought, and on attempting to put 
them on he found they were too small. His mother took them and 
locked them in a closet. Soon after a thought seemed to strike him; 
he contrived to obtain the key of the closet, opened the door, took 
out the shoes, and put them on the feet of a young lad who attended 
him, and whom they fitted exactly. When he happened to be sick and 
feverish he would point to his head, or take his mother's hand and 
place it opposite his heart. He never attempted to express his feelings 
by utterance, except when angry, when he would utter a loud bellow. 
Satisfaction or complacenc/ he expressed by patting the person or object 
which had excited that feeling. His smell being wonderfully acute he 
would be frequently offended through that sense when other persons 
near to him smelt nothing unpleasant. His elder sister seemed to have 
a much greater ascendancy over him than any other person. Touching 
his head with her hand was the principal method she employed in sig- 
nifying her wishes to him respecting his conduct. This she did with 
various degrees of force and in different manners, and he seemed readily 
to understand the intimation intended to be conveyed. 

158. Why is the sense of touch more vivid when the 
circulation is warm and active than when it is chilled and 
stagnant ? 

Because the papillae are dependent for their life and 
action on a constant supply of blood, when, therefore, the 
nerves receive an abundant supply ci the stimulating fluid 
the sense of touch becomes proportionately acute; and when 
this supply is stinted or withheld, sensation may in some 
cases become so blunted, as to allow wounds to be inflicted 
without exciting pain. 

1 59. Why is the sense of touch sometimes untruthworthy? 

Because it has its delusions like the other senses, so 
much so, that a body may be imagined to be felt, and yet 
have no real existence. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



53 



"The universal cause 
Acts to one end but acts by various laws; 
Connects each being, greatest with the least; 
Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast." — Pope. 



160. The following illusion of an extraordinary kind, which cannot 
be corrected even by the sight, proves that the senses alone unaided 
by the reasoning powers are not to be trusted; cannot indeed be be- 
lieved on all occasions : — If we place on a table, or on the palm of the 
hand, a marble or any other small globular body, and crossing it 
alternately with the fore and middle fingers so 
disposed that the marble shall touch only the 
outer edges or surfaces of the two fingers, the 
person will believe that he touches two marbles, 
although he knows that only one is present. The 
explanation of this illusion is as follows : The 
mind refers, involuntarily, all sensations experi- 
enced at different parts of the body to the 
position in which such parts are usually placed. 
Now the crossing of the fingers does not prevent 
us feeling either of them in contact with the 
marble, as if they were placed naturally side by 
side. But in the habitual position of the fingers 
side by side, it is impossible that the outer 
edges of any two fingers can be at the same 
time placed in sufficient contact with a single 
marble or other similar rounded body; and thus 
when such contact actually takes place simul- 
taneously, by the contrivance of crossing the fingers, then the mind invol- 
untarily believes the thing to be impossible, takes it for granted that 
two marbles, not one, must be present; and hence arises the sensation 
and perception of two distinct bodies. 




CHAPTER V. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIOUS ANIMALS. 

161. Why are animals arranged by naturalists into 
classes, orders, sub-orders, families, etc.? 

Classification prevents the necessity of frequently and 
fully describing any animal referred to; it ensures correct 
identity in the observations and communications of natural- 
ists. It also answers as a sort of dictionary wherein, from 
the properties of things, we proceed to discover their names, 
thus forming the inverse of ordinary dictionaries, where the 
names direct us to the properties. But no arrangement of 
animals can be perfect; first, because we may not be ac- 
quainted with all the species; secondly, because of some 
of the species we may know very little ; and, thirdly, because 
of those which we know best, the greater part are known 



54 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"To Him, no high, no low, no great, no small; 
He fills, He bounds, connects, and equals all." — Pope. 

as more or less domesticated ; and, further, because the great 
masters of natural history, differing in their views, produce 
systems of classification more or less varying from each 
other. Notwithstanding these difficulties, an approach to 
uniformity and identity may be obtained, eminently useful 
where the objects to be distinguished are remarkably numer- 
ous. 

162. What are the significations of the terms class, 
order, sub-order, family, genus, species, etc.? 

A class is a primary or leading division, a number of 
beings having one or more features in common. An order 
is a sub-division of a class. A sub-order is a further divi- 
sion of an order. Family is a still further division, and is 
used synonymously with tribe. Genus and species are more 
limited and definite than family or tribe; they refer to 
groups of individuals that agree in all, or nearly all essen- 
tials. Genera is the plural of genus. 

163. Species means tribes of animals or plants which have descended 
from the same stock, or from parentages precisely similar and in no way 
distinguished from each other. 

The ancients applied the term genus to any collective number of 
organized beings which are akin to each other, or the offspring of the 
same ancestors. The idea of genus was then simple and definite, and 
just what we attach to the terms kind or kindred. By degrees, the 
meaning of genus was extended, and it was made to comprehend all such 
creatures as by reason of some real or fancied resemblance in their 
form or nature were conjectured to have belonged to one original stock. 
Such groups were the "dog-kind," the "cat-kind," the "ox-kind." For 
the more developed state of science, these clauses were too comprehen- 
sive, and included tribes so remote from each other that they could not 
be regarded as the progeny of the same original tribes. The term species 
was therefore adopted, and made to express nearly what genus now does, 

1 64. According to the LlNNAEAN SYSTEM, the whole 
animal kingdom is ranged under the following SIX 
CLASSES : — 

I. MAMMALIA (from the Latin mammae, the breasts 
or teats of a female). — Animals with Avarm red blood, 
viviparous, and suckling their young. 

II. AvES (birds). — Animals with warm red blood, 
oviparous, and feathered. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 55 

"To me be Nature's volume broad displayed; 
And to peruse its all-instructing page, 
Or, haply catching inspiration thence, 
Some easy passage, raptur'd to translate." — Thomson. 

III. AMPHIBIA (from two Greek words, meaning both 
and life). — Animals with cold red blood, breathing by 
lungs, capable of subsisting for a time either on land or 
in water. 

IV. PlSCES (fishes). — Animals with cold red blood, 
breathing by gills, and not by lungs. 

V. INSECTA (insects). — Animals with cold white 
blood, having antennae (feelers) on the head, and articu- 
lated (jointed) horny organs of motion. 

VI. VERMES (worms). — Animals with cold white 
blood, without antennas, for the most part with tentacula 
(having simple threadlike organs for protusion around their 
mouths), and without articulated organs of motion. 

165. According to the SYSTEM OF CuviER, a leading 
grand division prevails over the whole of these, viz x , the 
vertebrated, from the invertebrated (from the Latin verto, to 
turn) ; the first being distinguished by having a back-bone, the 
latter by the absence of this organ. The vertebrated animals 
are divided into four classes, thus: — 

DIVISION I. VERTEBRATA. 

Class I. Mammalia. II. Aves. III. Reptilia. IV. Pisces. 

DIVISION II. MOLLUSCA. 

[This is the commencement of the invertebrated divi- 
sion, but the term is disused.] 

Class I. Cephalapoda. II. Oteropoda. III. Gasteropoda. 
IV. Acephala. V. Brachiopoda. VI. Cirrhopoda. 

DIVISION III. ARTICULATA. 

Class I. Annelides. II. Crustacea. III. Arachnidas 
Insecta. 

SUBDIVISION IV. RADIATA. 

Class I. Echinodermata. II. Entozoa. III. Acalepha 
Polypi V. Infusoria. 



56 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"When with a Reaumur's skill thy curious mind 
Has classed the insect tribes of human kind, 
Each with its busy hum, or gilded wing, 
Its subtle web-work, or its venomed sting." — Rogers. 



166. Why is the term invertebrated unemployed? 
Because it i^ merely of a negative character. 

[All animals may be referred to one or other of the foregoing classes, 
and those not included in the first Division are all invertebrated.] 

SO MUCH OF THE CLASSIFICATION AS WILL BE GIVEN IN THE FOLLOWING 
PAGES IS A COMBINATION OF THE SYSTEMS OF LlNNAEUS AND CUVIER, 
WITH SUCH MODIFICATIONS AS ARE NOW GENERALLY ADOPTED. 

Division I. — Vertebra. Class I.— Mammalia. 

ORDER I. BIMANA. 

167. What is the meaning of the term Bimana? 

It is derived from the Latin bis-, twice, and manus, a 
hand: it means two-handed. 

168. Why is MAN the only individual included in this 
order? 

Because he is the only two-handed animal. This fact 
will be further enforced by reference to 

ORDER II. QUADRUMANA. 

169. What is the meaning of the term Quadrumana? 

It is derived from the Latin quadra, four, manus, hand, 
and means four-handed. 

1 70. Why are monkeys described as four-handed? 
Because those of their extremities which are apparently 
analogous to the feet of man, are 
provided with thumbs* free and 
opposable to the other toes — -the 
toes themselves being long and 
similar to the fingers of the hand, 
In consequence of this peculiar- 
ity, all the species of the order ex- 
hibit the utmost facility in climbing 
trees, but cannot sustain themselves, 
much less walk, in an erect posture without considerable 
difficulty. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



57 



"With monkey's ingenuity, 
That love to practise what they see." — Butler. 



171. 1 n addition to this distinguished feature, the canine teeth of 
monkeys are longer than those of man ; while the bones of the pelvis 
are too narrow to continually support their bodies in an erect position. 

Mr. Partington regards it as incorrect to call the extremities of 
monkeys "hands;" they are, he says, properly paws. All the paws 
consist of four fingers and a thumb. The latter member is, however, 
very small, sometimes without a nail, and cannot, in all the species, be 
said to perform the functions of a true thumb, but often more resembles 
the callous pad which forms a point of resistance against the fingers in 
several other climbing animals. The anterior extremities are long, but 
much longer in some of the species than in others; the fingers are also 
long, the bones of some of the phalanges are often curved towards the 
palms, and the muscular power in grasping and pulling is much greater 
than, from the size of the animal or of the parts, one would be led to 
suppose. Similar grasping powers, in proportion to their size, are, how- 
ever, common to all the quadrumana, and to all climbing animals. 

1 72. What is the difference between apes, baboons, and 
monkeys ? 

Apes are such as are destitute of tails; Baboons have 
muscular bodies, elongated muzzles, and their tails are 

usually short; Monkeys 
are those whose tails are 
in general long, some of 
them, the Sapagos, having 
prehensile tails, which can 
at pleasure be twisted 
around any object, and 
thereby, in many in- 
stances, answer the pur- 
pose of an additional 
hand. 

1 73. Why are mon- 
keys divided into two 
principal subgenera, "the monkeys of the old world" and 
the "monkeys of the new world" ? 

Because of a remarkable and uniform difference in 
the number of their teeth. All the monkeys of the old 
world have the same number of teeth as the human species; 
but the monkeys of America have four cheek-teeth more than 
the other monkeys — thirty-six teeth in all — besides some 
minor distinguishing features. 




58 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Stand by there. What are you?" 

"My lady's ape, that imitated all her fashions; falling as she did, and 
running the same course of folly." — Nabbe. 

1 74. Why are monkeys confined to certain geographical 
limits ? 

Because their chief office evidently is to prevent the too 
rapid increase of birds, which they do by destroying vast 
numbers of eggs that would otherwise be brought to maturity 
almost by the sun's heat. This mission the monkeys carry 
out so perseveringly, that they are perpetually on the watch 
to rob birds' nests, and when they want appetite or inclina- 
tion to devour them, they will fling them on the, ground. 
We therefore find that monkeys abound in those latitudes 
where birds are most abundant. 

1 75. Why should rve not mistake the imitative propen- 
sities of monkeys for a natural love of mischief ? 

Because in mimicking the actions of man they will as 
readily engage in useful employment as in willful sport. 
And during the whole time they are so engaged their 
countenances assume a reflective and serious air. 

176. It is said that the Indians sometimes direct their imitative 
propensity to useful purposes; for, wishing to collect the cocoa-nuts and 
other fruits from the trees in the woods frequented by the apes, they 
repair to their places, setting the example of gathering a few heaps 
first themselves, and then withdrawing, leave the work to be performed 
by the animals at-will. These creatures seeing a heap or two com- 
menced, descend with the certainty of carrying on the business, and 
when the produce has been thus rather plentifully collected, the Indians 
approach and take away the harvest. 

1 77. Why have some monkeys tails of an extraordinary 
length? 

They are thus enabled to suspend themselves from the 
branches of one tree and reach food from another. By the 
same means the young of the animal sit securely on the back 
of the mother by turning their tails around her's, and so 
escape from the pursuit of their enemies. 

178. A sketch is here given of the Coaita, or Spider Monkey. 
The tail answers all the purposes of a hand, and the animal throws 
itself from branch to branch by means of its tail. The prehensible part 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



59 



"This apish and unmannerly approach, 
This harness'd mask, and unadvised revel, 
This unheard sauciness and boyish trooper, 
The king doth smile at." — Shakspere. 



of the tail is covered with skin 
only, forming an organ of touch 
as discriminating as the proper 
extremities. 

In monkeys the pectoral 
part of the body is by far the 
most muscular and robust in its 
form, while the ventral and 
sacral parts of its trunk are at- 
tenuated, so much so that this 
portion appears, in some of the 
species, as if it were nothing 
more than a stalk to the land 
legs; at all events it is never 
such as to impede their motions 
or encumber them by its weight. 
Now the young monkey so ap- 
plies itself to the body of its 
mother that it in no way im- 
pedes her motions, and is, in 
fact, the least possible burden 
to her that so much additional 
weight could be. The shoulder 
bones are stout and long for her size, by which means the breadth of 
her chest is ample, and the shoulder joints are thrown wide apart. The 
fore legs of the young clasp her round her neck! and hold on to the 
immoveable part of the shoulder, between the shoulder-bone and the 
blade-bone, so that their points of adhesion do not interfere with any 
of the moving parts. These members in the young monkey are so long 
that it can reach the pectoral mammas of the mother without weakening 
its own hold or cramping her motions; and then its hind legs clasp 
the body so far forwards that they leave the hinder extremities free for 
every operation of climbing. Therefore, a female monkey loaded with 
a young one has very nearly, if not altogether, the same use* of her 
organs as though she were without any load, because the young one 
adheres by its own exertions, which exertion strengthens in proportion 
to its weight. 




1 79. Why is a particular description of monkey * called 
the preacher? 

Because it is common for one of these creatures to ascend 
a lofty tree while a congregation of others of the tribe 
assemble in the lower branches; the monkey who is elevated 
above the rest then sets up a loud and shrill howl, which 
may be heard at a great distance. The assembled monkeys 
afterwards join in a noisy chorus. 



* Mycetes Beelzebub, 



60 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"All these are ours; and I with pleasure see 
Man strutting on two legs, and aping me." — Dryden. 

180. Why are lemurs included in the same order with 
the monkey tribes? 

Because although differing from the monkeys of the old 
and new worlds in their teeth, they are quadrumanous, hav- 
ing opposable thumbs on the fore as well as the hind paws. 

181. Why are they called lemurs ? 

The Latin lemurs means sprites that walk by night; arid 
these animals were so named by Linnaeus, because of their 
nocturnal habits, and their large glaring eyes. They wander 
by night, and subsist upon fruit, insects, and small birds. 

182. In the jungles about Tillicherry, there is a large species of 
monkey frequently tamed by the natives, and at a village a short dis- 
tance from this celebrated seaport there occurred an evidence of the 
extreme sagacity of this animal. A few yard-t from the house of the 
person to whom it belonged, a thick pole, at least thirty feet high, had 
been fixed into the earth, round which was an iron ring, and to this was 
attached a strong chain of considerable length, fastened to a band round 
the monkev's body. The ring being loose, it slid along the pole when 
he ascended or descended. He was in the habit of taking his station 
upon the top of the bamboo, where he perched as if to enjoy the beauties 
of the prospect around him. The crows, which in India are very abun- 
dant and singularly audacious, taking advantage of his elevated position, 
had been in the habit of robbing him of his food, which was placed 
every morning and evening at the foot of the pole. To this he had 
vainly expressed his dislike by chattering, and other indications of his 
displeasure equally ineffectual; but they continued their depredations. 
Finding that he was perfectly unheeded, he adopted a plan of retribu- 
tion as effectual as it was ingenious. 

One morning, when his tormenters had been particularly trouble- 
some, he appeared to be seriously indisposed; he closed his eyes, drooped 
his head, and exhibited various other symptoms of severe suffering. 
No sooner were his ordinary rations placed at the foot of the bamboo, 
than the crows, watching their opportunity, descended in great numbers, 
and according to their usual practice began to demolish his provisions. 
The monkey now began to slide down the pole by slow degrees, as 
if the effort were painful to him, and as if so overcome by indisposition 
that his remaining strength was scarcely equal to such exertion. When 
he reached the ground he rolled about for some time, seeming in great 
agony, until he found himself close to the vessel which contained his 
food, but which the crows had by this time well-nigh devoured. There 
was still, however, some remaining, which a solitary bird, emboldened 
by the apparent indisposition of the monkey, advanced to seize. The 
wily creature was at this time lying in a state of apparent insensibility 
at the foot of the pole and close to the pan. The rcoment the crow 
stretched out its head, and ere it could secure a mouthful of the inter- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



61 



"Far different there from all that charmed before, 
The various terrors of that horrid shore; 
Those matted woods where birds forget to sing, 
But silent bats in drowsy clusters cling." — Goldsmith. 



dieted food, the watchful avenger seized the depredator by the neck with 
the rapidity of thought, and secured it from doing further mischief. He 
now began to chatter and grin with every expression of gratified triumph, 
while the crows flew around, cawing in boisterous chime, as if depre- 
cating the chatisement about to be inflicted upon their captive companion. 
The monkey continued for a while to chatter and grin in triumphant 
mockery of their distress; he then deliberately placed the captive crow 
between his knees and began to pluck it with the most humorous gravity. 
When he had completely stripped it, except the large feathers in the 
pinions and tail, he flung it into the air as high as his strength would 
permit, and, after flapping its wings for a few moments, it fen on the 
ground with a stunning shock. The other crows, which had been for- 
tunate enough to escape a similar castigation, now surrounded it, and 
immediately pecked it to death. 

The animal had no sooner seen this ample retribution dealt to 
the purloiner of his repast, than he ascended the bamboo to enjoy a 
quiet repose. The next time his food was brought, not a single crow 
approached it. 



ORDER III. CARNARIA. 

the third division of 



the Mammalia 



183. Why is 
called Carnaria? 

The name implies lovers of flesh, and is therefore 
employed to denote those classes of animals which are flesh 
eaters. The term carnaria is applied to the whole of a great 
ORDER, which is again divided into sub-orders: 1. Cheirop- 
tera; 2. Insectivora; 3. Carnivora. 

Sub-order I. — Cheiroptera. 

184. Why is the first sub-order of Carnaria called 
Cheiroptera? 

Because the 
wings of the spe- 
cies composing it, 
as well as serving 
the purposes of 
flight are to some 
i extent capable of 
being used as 
hands. The term is derived from two Greek words mean- 
ing rving and hand, and signifies wing-handed. 




62 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"On a bat's wing will I fly, 
After sun-set merrily!" 

185. Why are bats not classed With birds, although 
they are capable of flight? 

Chiefly because they suckle their young, which habit 
refers them to the class mammalia. They breed at the 
hottest time of the year; and the young, which are usually 
two in number, are naked and helpless at their birth, cap- 
able only of clinging to the teats of their mother, which 
they do with the greatest firmness. There is no nest in 
which the mother can leave her young ones; so she bears 
them about attached to her body, until they are capable of 
flight. 

1 86. Why is the wing of the bat furnished with a hoo\? 
Without this hook, the bat would be the most helpless 

of all animals. It can neither run upon its feet, and can 
raise itself from the ground only with great difficulty. The 
hook takes the form of a bent claw, and is situated at an 
angle of the wing, by which means the bat attaches itself 
to the sides of rocks, caves, and buildings, laying hold of 
crevices, chinks, and protuberances. It hooks itself by this 
claw, remains suspended, and takes its flight from this posi- 
tion: which operations compensate for the decrepitude of 
its legs and feet. 

187. Why do bats conceal themselves in old ruins, 
fissures of walls, etc., by day? 

Because, being organized for nocturnal flight, the im- 
pressions of light are too powerful for them. Their wings 
being formed of a highly sensitive membrane, they seek 
sheltered places, where neither light nor currents of air can 
take effect upon them. 

1 88. Why have bat's wings numerous nerves distributed 
upon them? 

Their sight being defective, is compensated by the 
highly-sensitive nature of their wings, ears, nostrils, etc., 
which vary in different species. Their wings are so sus- 
ceptible of impressions, that bats, even after their eyes have 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 63 

"In chinks and holes 
Ten thousand seek an unmolested end 
As instinct prompts, self-buried ere they die." — CowPER. 

been destroyed, can fly about amidst numerous objects, and 
avoid them all with the greatest precision. The extreme 
sensibility to light and touch is shown by bats even in their 
dormant state. Be their torpidity ever so great, they shrink 
from the touch, even before actual contact, and appear 
disturbed at the presence of a candle, or any other light. 

1 89. Why do bats fly by night? 

Because they feed upon night-flying insects. Hence 
they take the place by night which the swallow occupies by 
day. Some of the species occasionally fly by day, but that 
habit is by no means common, and is confined to some of 
the foreign bats, which are vegetable feeders. 

190. Bats issue forth as darkness begins, and by their active flight 
capture such insects as are then on the wing — gnats, mosquitoes, moths, 
beetles, etc., and their wide gape with its formidable teeth is an excellent 
trap for the capture of such prey. The service which they render to 
vegetation, by the destruction of insects which in the larva state prey 
upon it, is very considerable, even in temperate climates; and some of 
the hot countries in which they swarm by myriads could not but for 
them be inhabited. In humid places on the margins of tropical forests, 
mosquitoes are troublesome enough as it is; but if the bats did not 
thin their numbers they would be utterly unbearable. Those species, 
too, which frequent the towns and settlements are useful in other respects. 
Most of the race are miscellaneous in their feeding, and not very delicate 
in their taste. They devour indiscriminately all animal substances, 
whether raw or dressed, and whether in a recent or putrid state. 

191. Why do bats hybernate during the winter months? 
Because, as they feed chiefly upon insects, their supply 

of food fails as the winter approaches, and their office in 
the great scheme of nature can no longer be fulfilled. 
Therefore, as the time when, for the same causes, the swal- 
low departs for a sunnier clime where insect food may be 
found, the bat retires into its hiding places, and sleeps away 
the months of winter. 

SUB-ORDER II. INSECTIVORA. 

192. Why is the second sub-order of Carnaria called 
Insectivora ? 

Because they live principally, if not wholly, upon in- 
sects. The name is derived from two Latin words — insecta, 
insects, and voro, to devour. 



64 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Well said, old Mole, can'st work in the earth 
So fast? a worthy pioneer!" — Sh^kspere. 



193. In what respects is the anatomy of the mole 
admirably adapted to its mode of life? 

The animal burrows underground in pursuit of worms, 
upon which it feeds. Its feet are so many shovels; they 
determine the action of rooting in the ground ; and everything 
about the animal's body agrees with this destination. The 
cylindrical figure of the mole, as well as its compact form, 
arising from the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessens 
its labor; because, according to its bulk, it thereby requires 
the least possible quantity of earth to be removed from its 
progress. It has nearly the same structure of the face and 
jaws as a pig, and the same office for them. The nose is 
sharp, slender, tendinous, strong, with a pair of nerves going 
down to the end of it. The plush covering which, by the 
smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that 

^compose it Rejects the 




adhesion of almost every 
species of earth, defends 
the animal from cold 
and wet, and from the 
impediment which it 
would experience by the 
mould sticking to its 
body. 



194. Let us compare for a moment the bats with the moles with 
reference to their locomotion. Both are insectivorous, but how widely 
different in their conformation! The bat has to winnow its way through 
the air: the mole, like the bat, has to re-act against a given medium — 
a very different one, certainly — and is endowed with a power of moving 
through that medium by means of a modification of the locomotive organs 
beautifully adapted to its density. Instead of the lengthened bones of 
the fore-arm that so well assist the bat to make its way with outstretched 
wing through the air, all in this part of the organization of the mole 
.is short and compact, to enable it to bore through the dense medium 
where it is to live and move and have its being. The development 
is all anterior. The fore part of the mole forms an elongated cone; the 
posterior part is narrow and small, and the whole of its proportions are 
admirably fitted to assist it, so to speak, in flying through the earth. 
The long and almost round scapula, the expanded humerus, the enor- 
mous power, in short, of the anterior extremities, and the great strength 
and compactness of the fingers, are all fitted for the digging duty they 
have to do. Add to this a soft, short-cut velvety coat, to which no 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The glass through which an envious eye doth gaze, 
Can easily make a mole-hill mountain seem." — Fletcher. 



particle oi soil ever adheres and you have the perfection of organization 
for rapid progress through the ground.* 

195. Why are moles beneficial to farmers? 
Because of the great number of worms which they 

devour, which more than compensates for the injury they 
are supposed to do to the soil, and to roots. It is said 
that where old mole-hills are most abundant pi sheep 
pastures, the latter animal is generally in a healthy state, as 
it feeds on the wild thyme and other salubrious herbs, which 
flourish on these heaps of earth. It is also said that after 
the mole-hills had been destroyed in a park which belonged 
to the Earl of Essex, the deer never throve. 

The Rev. C. A. Bury has pointed out that the good 
resulting to the farmer from the drainage afforded by the 
mole-hills is considerable. 

196. Every one is aware of the fact that the mole burrows for its 
food, that its nest is formed underground, that a larger hillock than 
the rest is raised for the reception of its young; but it is not so gen- 
erally known that its 
subterranean excava- 
tions are of the most 
distinct and determin- 
ate character; that 
there are permanent 
passages or highroads 
for its ordinary trav- 
els from one part of 
its domain to another; 
that into these roads 

open the excavations in which it follows its daily labors in search 
of food; that its fortress — the house in which it resides from the autumn 
to the spring— is of a complex and most ingenious structure, and that 
this domicile is always a distinct and almost remote building from that 
in which the nest is formed. 






The district or domain to which an individual mole confines him- 
self may be termed its encampment. Within its limits, or at least in 
immediate communication with the district, all the labors of the animal 
are pursued. It consists of the habitation or fortress, from which 
extends the high-road by which the animal reaches the opposite extrem- 
ities of the encampment, and of various galleries or excavations opening 
into this road, which it is continually extending in search of food, and 
which constitute, in fact, its hunting-ground. The fortress is formed 
under a large hillock, whi h is always raised in a situation of safety 
and protection is either ut er a bank, against the foundation of a wall, 



* Penny Encyclopaedia. 



66 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Pray you, tread softly, that the blind mole may not 
Hear a foot fall!" — Shakspere. 



at the root of a tree, or in some similar locality. The earth of which 
the dome covering this curious habitation is composed is rendered 
exceedingly strong and solid by being pressed and beaten by the mole 
in forming it. It contains a circular gallery within the base, which 
communicates with a smaller one above by five nearly equidistant pas- 
sages; and the domicile or chamber is placed within the lower and 
beneath the upper circular gallery, to which last it has access by three 
similar passages. From the chamber extends another road, the direction 
of which is at first downwards for several inches; it then rises again, 
to open into the high-road of the encampment. From the external 
circular gallery open about nine other passages, the orifices of which 
are never formed opposite to those which connect the outer with the 
inner and upper gallery: these extend to a greater or less distance, 
and return, each taking an irregular, semi-circular route, and opening 
into the high-road at various distances from the fortress. Such is a 
very hasty description of this most singular structure; and nothing surely 
can be imagined more admirably calculated to ensure the security or the 
retreat of the inhabitant than such an arrangement of internal routes 
of communication as this. The chamber communicating beneath directly 
with the road, and above with the upper gallery — this with the lower 
by five passages, and the latter 1 again with the road by no less than 
nine — exhibit altogether a complication of architecture which may rival 
the more celebrated erections of the beaver. The nest is always distinct, 
and frequently remote from the fortress, and is usually, but not always, 
covered by a hillock, which, when it exists, is much larger than an 
ordinary mole-hill. It is formed simply by excavating and enlarging 
the point of intersection by three or four passages. The bed of the 
nest is composed of a mass of herbage, grass, roots, or leaves. In 
one which was examined by Geoffrey and Le Court, no less than two 
hundred and four blades of young wheat were counted. This, however, 
can scarcely be considered as an ordinary occurrence, as they generally 
prefer dry and soft substances. The period of gestation is supposed to 
be about two months or upwards ; and the young are brought forth in 
April — sometimes earlier, at others later, according to the season: indeed, 
young moles have been found at all times from the beginning of April 
till August, which has led some persons to believe that there are more 
than one brood in the year. There are generally four or five, sometimes 
as few as three, rarely six.* 

197. Why were moles once thought to be destitute of 
eyes? 

Because, as organs of sight, if highly developed, would 
not only be useless to a burrowing animal, but a hindrance 
to its mining operations, the eyes are simply rudimentary, 
and are so hidden in the fur that their existence was for 
a long time doubted. 

1 98. Why have moles elongated muzzles, endowed with 
a refined sense of touch? 

* Maunder's "Treasury of Natural History." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 67 

"The brooke is ready to o'reflow the brim, 
Or in the bancke the water having got 
Some mole-hole runs, where he expected not." — Brown. 



Because, being nearly destitute of sight, they are gifted 
with an exquisite sense of touch, which compensates for the 
loss of the visual faculty, and enables them to find their 
food in the darkness under the earth's surface. 

199. Why are "fairy rings" attributed to moles? 

It is supposed by some naturalists that the verdant 
circles thus denominated are owing to the operations of 
these animals, who at certain seasons perform their bur- 
rowings in a series of circles, which, loosening the soil, give 
the surface a greater fertility, and consequent rankness of 
grass. 

200. Why is the collar-hone of the mole of extraor- 
dinary thickness and length? 

Because the peculiar habit of the animal rendered su- 
perior strength in this part of the body necessary in order 
to facilitate its progress when mining its way through the 
ground. The collar-bones are wanting in those animals that 
use their anterior extremities for progression only, and there 
are rudiments of them in such as hold a middle station. 

201. Why when a female mole is caught in a trap, is 
the male frequently found lying dead close beside her? 

Because the attachment between these animals is very 
great; and, in this instance, affection overcomes the calls of 
hunger, and the fast proves fatal to the animal. 

202. Why does the water-shrew appear to be of a 
bright silvery color when swimming? 

Because its hairy coat repels the water, and forms nu~ 
merous bubbles upon the surface, producing a silver-like 
appearance. When the little animal quits the water, these 
bubbles fall off, and the coat remains dry. 



68 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The beast of prey, 
Blood-stained, deserves to bleed; but ye flocks, 
What have you done; ye peaceful people, what, 
To merit death!" — Thomson. 



203. Why is the hedgehog covered Jvith short bony 
spines ? 

Being helpless and inoffensive these spines form a coat 
of armor effective against its principal enemies. They are 
firmly fixed in a tough skin, and are capable of resisting 
a great amount of force. The natural enemies of the 
hedgehog are weasels, stoats, ferrets, wild cats, and foxes. 
When attacked the hedgehog rolls itself up, and waits till 
the danger has passed. It is rarely that its enemies can 
gain advantage over it when once rolled within its coat 
of prickly armor. 

204. The hedgehog is destructive of snakes, against which it wages 
war in the following curious manner: — The cunning quadruped makes a 
sudden attack on the reptile, and, giving it a hard bite, instantly rolls 
itself up for safety; then cautiously unfolds and inflicts another wound, 
repeating its attacks until the snake is powerless. Then the hedgehog 
feeds upon its prey, generally beginning with the tip of the tail, and 
proceeding upwards. 

SUB-ORDErf III. — -CARNIVORA. 

205. Why is the third sub-order of carnaria called 
carnivora ? 

The term implies flesh-eaters, and is used to distinguish 
the sub-order carnivora, which consists of flesh-devouring 
quadrupeds, from the general order carnaria, which includes 
insect and worm-eaters, as well as flesh-eating quadrupeds, 
divided into three sub-orders, as already explained. 

206. Why have carnivorous animals large canine teeth? 
Being beasts of prey, they are furnished with these 

teeth as weapons for seizing the creatures upon which they 
feed. 

207. Why are their molar teeth tuberculated and fitted 
into the surfaces of each other? 

Because the flesh which they devour requires to be 
lacerated by a cutting motion. The jaws of carnivorous 
animals have simply an upward and downward motion, and 
do not move, also, sideways like the jaws of the ox, and 
other ruminants. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



69 



"Strong is the lion — like a coal 
His eyeball — like a bastion's mole 
His chest against the foes. — Smart. 



208. What anatomical features of the carnivora exhibit 
a remarkable adaptation of their modes of life? 

As they feed on living animals, they are generally swift 
to pursue; and, as well as being armed with canine teeth, 
have strong talons, adapted for seizing their prey. These 
talons are retractile, that is, they are capable of being drawn 
in between the toes, by which they are protected from being 
blunted by contact with the ground. Their sight is keen, 
and even more so by night than by day. Their senses of 
hearing and of smell are highly developed; their nostrils are 
studded with whiskers, which are susceptible of the slightest 
impression of touch, and their feet are padded, so that 
they can tread noiselessly. 

209. Why is the lion provided with such a large mane? 
The formidable clothing is with difficulty penetrated by 

an ordinary weapon. When the animal is prowling, or 

using only his ordinary 
powers of locomotion, in 
the use of which he is 
generally slow and ma- 
jestic, his mane lies a con- 
siderable way over the 
back, hangs down over 
the shoulders, and there 
protects the powerful 
muscles, which put his de- 
structive arm in motion, 
from all changes of tem- 
perature, so that they are 
never stiffened by cold, 

or relaxed by heat, even when the animal finds it necessary 

to prowl in the open deserts during the heat of the day, or 

in the dead of night. 

210. Why is the lion termed the kmg of the forest? 
Because there is a certain majesty in his mien and a 




70 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

" 'Tis the royal disposition of the beast, to prey on nothing that doth 
seem as dead." — Shakspere. 



nobleness in his nature which raise him far above the scale 
of wild beasts in general. The courage and resolution of 
the lion are conspicuous and he possesses such an incredible 
degree of strength, that he can bear off a large heifer, or 
an antelope, as easily as a cat would carry a rat. 

211. Why when a person is attacked by a feline ani- 
mal may he be able to save his life by non-resistance after 
the first blow is struck? 

Because it is the habit of this class of animals, having 
once overcome their prey, to cease for a certain time to 
inflict injury on it. The mere act of felling their victim 
to the earth appears for a time to appease the rage of a 
feline animal. Thus a cat will sit by the mouse it has 
captured for some minutes without venturing to molest it 
until it tries to make its escape; and the lion and the tiger 
will, in the same manner, couch by the side of its prostrate 
victim without offering to harm him until some movement 
is made. 



212. The following interesting narrative, related by an eye-witness 
of the scene will be found to illustrate the above-mentioned peculiarity 
of the feline race: — In the month of July, 1831, two fine lions made 
their appearance in a jungle some twenty miles distant from the canton- 
ment of Rajcate, in the East Indies, where Captain Woodhouse and his 
two friends, Lieutenants Delamain and Lang were stationed. An ele- 
phant was despatched to the place on the evening on which the informa- 
tion arrived; and on the morrow, at the break of day, the three gentle- 
men set off on horseback full of glee, and elated with the hope of a 
speedy engagement. On arriving at the edge of the jungle, people 
were ordered to ascend the neighboring trees, that they might be able 
to trace the route of the lions in case they left the cover. After beating 
about in the jungle for some time, the hunters started the two lordly 
strangers. The officers' fired immediately, and one of the lions fell to 
rise no more. His companion broke cover, and took off across the 
country. The officers now pursued him on horseback as fast as the 
nature of the ground would allow, until they learned from the men 
who were stationed in the trees, and who held up flags by way of 
signal, that the lion had gone back into the thicket. Upon this, the 
three officers returned to the edge of the jungle, and having dis- 
mounted from their horses, they got upon their elephant, Captain Wood- 
house placing himself in the hindermost seat. They now proceeded 
towards the heart of the jungle, in the expectation of rousing the royal 
fugitive a second time. They Jound him standing under a large bush 
with his face directed towards them. The lion allowed them to approach 
within range of his spring, and then he made a sudden dart at the 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 71 

"When the gaunt lioness, with hunger told, 
Springs from the mountains tow'rd the guarded fold; 
Through breaking woods her rustling course they hear; 
Loud and more loud the clamors strike the ear!" — Pope. 



elephant, clung on his trunk with a tremendous roar, and wounded 
him just above the eye. While he was in the ad of doing this the 
two lieutenants fired at him, but without success. The elephant now 
shook him off; but the fierce and sudden attack on the part of the 
lion seemed to have thrown him into the greatest consternation, and 
much exertion was used before his riders succeeded in urging him on 
again in quest of the lion. At last he became somewhat more tractable; 
but as he was advancing through the jungle all of a sudden the Ron, 
which had lain concealed in the high grass, made at him with redoubled 
fury. The officers now lost all hopes of keeping their elephant in 
order. He turned round abruptly and was, going away quite ungovern- 
able, when the lion again sprang at him, seized on his hinder parts 
with its teeth, and hung on them until the affrighted animal managed 
to shake him off by repeated kicking. The lion then retreated further 
into the thicket. The officers now determined upon dismounting, and 
Captain Woodhouse took the desperate resolution of proceeding on foot 
in quest of the lion. After some difficulty he succeeded in tracing the 
print of the animal's feet, and resolved to follow the track at all hazards. 
In the meantime Lieutenant Delamain, who stood outside the jungle, 
caught sight of the lion and fired at him. This irritated the beast and 
caused him to rush towards his assailant; in doing so he must inevitably 
cross the path where Captain Woodhouse was. The Captain saw this 
and resolved to stand still, hoping that the lion would pass by without 
perceiving him; in this, however, he was undeceived, for the enraged 
animal saw him in passing, and flew at him with a dreadful roar. In 
an instant the Captain's rifle was broken and thrown out of his hand, 
his left arm at the same moment being seized by the claws, and his 
right by the teeth of his desperate antagonist. While this conflict was 
going on Lieutenant Delamain ran up and discharged his piece at the 
lion. This caused the combatants to come to the ground together, 
while Lieutenant Delamain hastened out of the jungle to reload his 
gun. The lion now began to worry the Captain's arm; who, notwith- 
standing the pain he suffered, had the presence of mind to lie still; 
the lion thereupon let the arm drop out of his mouth and quietly placed 
kimself in a crouching position, with both his paws upon the thigh of 
his fallen foe. No sooner, however, had he moved it, than the lion 
seized the lacerated arm a second time, crushed it as before, and frac- 
tured the bone still higher up. This reminded the Captain that he had 
committed an act of imprudence on stirring which he determined to 
profit by. He now lay bleeding and disabled under the foot of a 
mighty and irritated enemy; and with the terrors of death before his 
very eyes. At this moment the two lieutenants were hastening to his 
assistance, and he heard the welcome sound of feet approaching; but, 
unfortunately, they were in a wrong direction, as the lion was betwixt 
them and him. Aware that if his friends fired the balls would hit him, 
after they had passed through, the lion's body, Captain Woodhouse quietly 
pronounced in a low and subdued tone, "To the other side! to the 
other side!" Hearing the voice they looked in the direction from whence 
it proceeded, and to their horror saw their brave companion in his 
utmost need. Having made a circuit they cautiously came up on the 
other side, and Lieutenant Delamain, from a distance of about a dozen 
yards, fired at the Aon over the person of his prostrate friend. The 
lion merely quivered; his head dropped upon the ground, and in an 
instant he lay dead on his side close to his intended victim. 



72 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Wythin a large wyldernesse, 
Where was lyon and lyonesse, 
The leparde, and the tygre also." — Gower. 




2 1 3. Why may toe conclude that the sense of hearing 

in panthers, tigers, etc., is very acute? 

Because many of them prey only in the woods, and all 

of them lurk in brakes and thickets, and, therefore, quick 

hearing is essential both 
to their discovering their 
prey and to prevent their 
prey from discovering 
them. It is also a con- 
firmed law in the econ- 
omy of animals that those 
which walk softly in pro- 
portion to their weight 
are always quick of hear- 
ing. This extends even to 
human beings, among 
whom it is found that 

those who walk lightly have quick ears, while a dull ear 

and a heavy step are always associated.* 

214. Why is the tongue of the tiger, lion, and some 
other animals so rough upon its upper surface? 

Because this condition of the tongue enables the animal 
to scrape off the minute particles of flesh adherent to the 
bones. The moderate degree in which this peculiar con- 
formation in the tongue exists in the tongue of the common 
cat is familiar to every one; in the lion and tiger, however, 
the roughness is so great that one stroke of the tongue is 
sufficient to tear the skin from off a man's hand. 

215. Why do beasts of prey generally roar before they 
spring upon their victim? 

Because they desire to terrify their prey, and thereby 
to overcome them .more easily. Some animals, however, 
such as the cat, seize their prey silently, and growl while 



* Partington's "Cyclopaedia.' 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 73 



"So when a lion s 
And angry grows,- 
To tame his youth 
He bends to him. 


hakes his dreadful mane, 
-if he that first took pain 
approach the haughty beast, 
" — Waller. 



they devour it. In these cases the growl is probably dic- 
tated by a fear of losing what they have seized, and as a 
menace to others of their own species who might seek to 
steal it from them. 

216. Why are the pupils of the eyes of carnivorous 
animals variously shaped? 

Because the various habits of the animals require a 
different exercise of the faculty of sight. The round pupil, 
contracting from a large to a very small orifice, is found 
in animals which have occasion to use the eyes with nearly 
equal readiness in all directions — vertical, horizontal, or 
oblique; the eye with the upright pupil is found in those 
animals which have most occasion to use their eyes in a 
vertical plane, especially above them; and eyes with the 
horizontal axis is found in those which have most occasion 
to use them in the horizontal plane. 

217. Thus in the dog, which ranges the wide field for its subsist- 
ence, the pupil is round; in the cat, which, in a state of nature, feeds 
in copses, either upon small quadrupeds upon the ground under it, or on 
birds in the branches above, has the greatest power of the eyes in the 
vertical direction; and in the hare, which has most occasion for view 
in the lateral direction only, the pupil contracts to a horizontal line. 
This is even more remarkable as between the lion and the tiger; the 
former, though he hides in bushes and thickets, generally preys upon 
animals which are in the open places, and also has his haunt in places 
so bare as that he can see what is going on about him, has the pupil 
round. The tiger, on the other hand, which frequents the grassy 
bottoms of jungles, where the vegetation interrupts the lateral view, has 
the pupil elongated in the vertical direction.* 

218. Why does the lion lie in wait for the giraffe in 
the neighborhood of rvater? 

Because when the giraffe stoops to drink it is obliged 
to assume a position from which it cannot readily start, 
while it loses the advantage of the large and watchful eyes 
which, when its head is erect, at once detect the approach 
of the enemy from any direction. 

219. Why are there creatures of carnivorous habits in 
all the classes of the animal kingdom? 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



74 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"But, as an old booke saith, who will assay 
About the cat's necke to hang on a bell, 
Had first need to cut the cat's clawes away." 

Because the prolific tendency of the herbivorous races 
would, if unchecked, speedily create famine. The design, 
therefore, in the universal distribution of carnivorous crea- 
tures is to restrain the too rapid increase of vegetable feeders, 
by which scarcity of our own food would soon be created. 

220. The myriads of insects which find their subsistence on our 
forest-trees, if allowed to increase without restraint, would soon destroy 
the life that supports them, and must all then perish together; but 
another tribe (that of the insectivorous birds as the woodpecker) is 
adapted to derive its subsistence from them, and thus to keep within 
salutary bounds the numbers of these voracious little beings. Some- 
times, however, they increase to an enormous extent. Whole forests 
have been destroyed by the ravages of a single species of beetle, which 
is less than a quarter of an inch in' length. 

221. Why do the eyes of certain animals "glare" in 
the twilight or dark? 

It was once supposed that the eyes of animals in which 
this phenomena appears possessed the power of emitting 
light, and acted as lanterns in the direction of the animal 
to seize its prey. But this appears to be not the case. 
The light is reflected from the choroid tissue, which has a 
sort of metallic luster, and reflects, after 4;he manner of a 
concave mirror, a portion of the light which enters the 
widely-distended pupil. It is not improbable that, this 
reflected light is thrown upon the object which the animal 
desires to investigate or to seize. Although small in amount, 
it may sufficiently illuminate an object to impress the highly 
sensitive retina of the eyes of such of the feline species 
in which this peculiarity is most exhibited. 

222. Why do not their eyes glisten in the daylight? 
Because the aperture of the pupil is then contracted. 

The light being thus excluded, the quantity which finds 
admission to the eye, and falls upon the coat from which 
the reflection proceeds, is very small. But when the animal 
stands in a dark shade, the pupil dilates, the reflecting coat 
is, as it were, exposed, and the eyes glisten just as much 
during the day as in the night. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. . 75 

«■ ' ' — i 

"You dread reformers of an impious age, 
You awful cat-o-nine-tails to the stage, 
This once be just, and in our cause engage." — Vanburgh. 

223. Why, when playing with a cat, does she turn 
upon her back an d 5e * ze V our hand with her claws? 

The cat, thus in play, imitates the habit of wild animals 
of her species, which, when they seize an animal large 
enough to make the capture difficult, hold it with their fore 
paws, turn on their backs, and then by working rapidly 
with the claws of the hind feet, they tear open the abdomen 
of their prey. 

224. Why does cropping the ears of cats close to the 
head prevent their climbing trees and destroying birds? 

Because the interior ear of the cat is extremely sensitive, 
especially to moisture. When, therefore, the external ear 
is removed, the animal in moving about is subjected to con- 
stant and painful annoyances, through the exposure of the 
ear. 

This practice of clipping cats' ears is much resorted to 
in British Guiana, where the settlements are near the woods, 
and birds so numerous that the cats are continually straying 
after them. 

225. Cats thus cropped cannot go into the open air at all during 
the rains; and even in the dry season they cannot pursue their feathered 
prey in the woods at night, which is their favorite hunting time, 
because even then the leaves are generally covered with heavy dew, 
which the progress of the cat causes to drop into the openings of the 
ears, and thus the cat is obliged to stay at home and pursue her mouse 
and rat-catching.* 

226. Why does the fur of cats emit electrical sparks 
when briskly rubbed? 

Electricity is common to all animal bodies. Although 
not fully understood, it may be regarded, if not as one 
of the elements, as at least one of the conditions of life. 
With regard to the electricity of the cat, it is probable that 
the emission of sparks under friction arises from the peculiar 
dryness of the fur, which is free from the oily substance 
common to the coats of other animals. 

227. Hair of this kind is a very bad conductor of electricity, and 
as such it can be made electric by friction. It will be readily under- 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



76 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"She stretched in vain to reach the prize; 
What female heart can gold despise? 
What cat's averse to fish? — Gray. 



stood that this non-conducting power in the fur of the cat must act 
as a barrier between what goes on internally and the external atmo- 
sphere. If great energy is by means excited, this property must prevent 
that energy from being dispersed in the air; and this condition results 
in the well-known phenomena, under this circumstance, of electrical 
discharges assuming the form of sparks. 

228. Why are cats seen to change their position fre- 
quently, and to lick themselves incessantly just previously 
to a storm? 

Because when a storm is approaching the air is over- 
charged with the electrical fluid, to which cats are extremely 
sensitive. The hair of the animal is the first thing to be 
affected, and instead of lying down smoothly, it becomes 
ruffled, and probably produces the sensation of itching; 
hence she is constantly rubbing her coat and ears to smooth 
down the hair, and wipe off the cause of the irritation. 

229. By what means is a cat enabled to extend or 
withdraw its talons? 

In the foot of the cat, the bone to which the claw is 
attached has a rotary movement upon the preceding one; 
this movement is effected in one direction by a powerful 
muscle, which draws the bone downward and causes the 
claws to project; whilst there is a ligament composed of 
elastic fibrous tissue which draws the bone in the other 
direction, and retracts the claw within a kind of sheath. 

230. When the animal is walking, running, or leaping, the claws 
are thus drawn in, without any exertion on the part of the animal, by 
the simple elasticity of the ligament; and they are thus secured, either 
from receiving injury by wear against the ground, or from impeding 
the movements of the animal by becoming entangled in the inequalities 
of its surface, or in the vegetation that covers it. In this state of the 
claws the animal bears upon a number of soft cushions, one beneath each 
toe, which enable it to steal with a noiseless step upon its prey, and 
thus, by surprising them, to vanquish animals whose size would make 
their resistance formidable, or whose swiftness would afford them a 
chance of escape from direct pursuit. 

231 . Why will a cat refuse vegetable food while a dog 
will sometimes accept it? 

Because the cat is the more carnivorous animal of the 
two, and its teeth and other apparatus are not fitted for the 
reception of vegetable matter ; while the dog being less car- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 77 

"What though care kill'd a cat, thou hast metal enough in thee to kill 
care ?" — Shakspere. 



nivorous, will sometimes accept vegetable food, although 
ordinarily he prefers flesh. 

232. Whi) do cats lap fluids so slowly? 

Because when they drink, they lap, not with the tongue 
bent upwards at the tip and the sides, so as to form a 
kind of spoon, as is the case with the dog, but with the 
tongue bent downwards at the tip; and hence they lap more 
slowly. They lap in this manner for the purpose of filling 
the cup-shaped papillae of the tongue. 

233. Why is a cat said to live "nine lives* ? 

Because they escape without injury from falls and con- 
cussions that would either kill or maim most other animals. 
This immunity from peril may be attributed mainly to the 
freedom or litheness of the joints of the animal; for what- 
ever part of them is struck or made to strike against any 
obstacle gives way like a spring; and the weight of the 
bones of their fore paws partly conduces to bring them to 
the ground on their feet. 

234. Why does the coati burrow beneath the roots of 
trees ? 

Because from the peculiar nature of its snout, which 
it employs as a burrowing instrument, it cannot construct 
a burrow with a roof, as is the case with those animals 
which dig downward, or laterally, with the paws. They, 
therefore, select the roots of trees, the ramifications of which 
afford them roofed retreats, which they could not them- 
selves construct. These animals burrow in company, and 
it is said that they often undermine trees to such an extent 
that when even a moderate wind comes, they are overturned 
in great numbers. 

235. Why have bears such an awkward and shuffling 
gait? 

Because there are no clavicles to keep the shoulder 
bones steadily apart, and thus, as the fore-legs are moved, 
the blade bones "work" much more on the sides than is 



78 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"They have tied me to a stake; I cannot fly; 
But, bear-like, I must fight my course." — Shakspere. 

■ — — — — — ^— — — — — — — — — » 

usual in animals. The hind legs have what is usually the 
finest flexure — or ankle joint in other quadrupeds — at the 
ground, in bears, and thus the first joint of their hind legs 
bends the contrary way to that with which we are most 
familiar. 

236. From these peculiarities of formation, we are apt to imagine 
that the bear walks with pain and difficulty. Such, however, is not the 
case. The broad base which the foot of the bear forms enables it to 
walk very securely, even in difficult paths; its progress is more rapid 
than we could suppose, and thd firmness with which it can stand on 
the flat soles of its hind feet, enables it to use the fore paws in grasp- 
ing. The want of clavicles enables it to grasp and hug between the 
fore legs much more powerfully than could be performed by a clavicled 
animal; and this power is of great service to it, not only in climbing, 
an operation to which it must often have recourse for its food, but 
in hugging its enemies, which it does so intensely, that a strong animal 
is in their grasp strangled by compression of the chest. Climbing is, 
however, the proper function of the want of clavicles, and climbing by 
grasping the bole of the tree between the paws, and not by grasping 
with the single paws as monkeys do. And this mode of climbing answers 
remarkably well in those places where bears most abound. Pine for- 
ests are its haunts, and where pines grow closely together, they have no 
lateral branches till a considerable height from the ground. Such trees 
could not easily be climbed by animals which grasped out with the hands. 

237. Why are bears able to live uninjured in exposed 
places ? 

Because they possess a coat of almost impenetrable 
thickness, and have also a quantity of fat accumulated 
under it. These protections prevent the temperature from 
sinking, and prevent them from feeling the cold and other 
effects of the elements. 

238. Why is a bear enabled to stand in an upright 
position, and to hug objects with his fore-paws? 

Because he possesses a more perfectly developed collar- 
bone than most animals; the office of this bone being to 
keep the shoulders apart from the chest, and to throw the 
action of the muscles proceeding from the ribs upon the 
arm bone, which, with a very imperfectly formed collar- 
bone, would be drawn inwards, and contract the upper part 
of the trunk. 

239. Why is it a vulgar prejudice against badgers, that 
they burrow into graves, and devour the bodies of the dead? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 79 

"Some in scarlet, some in purple cloth, all in badgers* skins, as is 
prescribed." — Spelman. 

This vulgar error arises from the burrowing habits of 
the badger, coupled with its peculiarly offensive odor. 
Badgers, however, burrow, not for the purpose of eating., 
but to obtain a place of shelter and safe retreat. Their 
food consists only of those creatures which come out to feed 
during the night, such as snails, worms, and other nocturnal 
creatures. 

240. Why is the female badger more careful than the 
male in burrowing in secure places? 

Because the male requires the burrow only as a place 
of shelter during the day and the winter ; the female requires 
the additional accommodation of a nursery for her young. 
Therefore, the female is in part influenced by her natural 
instinct, and works in accordance with that before she is of 
age to become a mother; while the male, into whose com- 
position no such instinct enters, takes the work more easily. 

241. Two young badgers, a male and a female, were taken out oi 
the burrow of their mother, and placed in a paved yard, which was so 
fenced in that they could not escape, and yet allowed them considerable 
range. They unpaved a portion of the yard and dug a burrow in which 
they spent the day, ancf came out in the night only to eat the food 
which was placed for them. After continuing a year in the court they 
were put into a small enclosure walled round with stone, and having a 
mound of earth in the center. True to their habit of digging on sloping 
banks where there are stones to support their entrance, they first tried 
the walls all around, to find a place where they could dig a habitation. 
They then chose an opening between two stones which was a little 
elevated above the ground, and had the upper stone projecting over it. 
In nature the entrance to the badger's burrow is often under a pro- 
jecting stone, which partially conceals it, and protects it from the rain. 
They had some difficulty in reaching this? place, as it required nearly 
the whole length of their bodies standing on the hind feet, and the 
fore feet had in consequence little influence on the plaster and stones. 
They tried a resource, however; the male lay down close by the bottom 
of the wall, and the female, standing on him, could reach the desired 
place with more effect. All would not do, so they abandoned the place 
and tried the result at others, always selecting a place under a projecting 
stone. In these attempts, which, though they all proved unsuccessful, 
were carried on with great energy and perseverance, the female was the 
most active, selecting the places and being the principal operator. After 
many fruitless attempts they abandoned the walls and "betook themselves 
to the mound of earth, the female, as in other cases, leading the way. 
Even here they did not at once begin to form the burrow, but ran trial 
lines or trenches over a considerable part of the surface, till they came 
to a place which suited them, and here they began their regular opera- 
tions. In the first loosening of the earth they used the nose, then they 
dug deeper with the fore paws, flinging the earth backwards between 
the hind ones, and afterwards using them to remove the heap still 
further in the rear. When the heap behind them accumulated, they 



80 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"In hollow caverns vermin make abode, 
The hissing serpent, and the swelling toad, 
The corn-devouring weasel here abides, 
And the wise ant her wintry store provides." — Dryden. 



retreated backwards upon it, and using all the paws gradually removed 
it from the hole. Sometimes one of them would lie down to rest by the 
side of the other at work and remain, though haH-buried in the earth, 
and apparently giving considerable interruption to its fellow. The male 
was most prone to indulge in these lazy fits, while the female was by 
far the most industrious in the labor. 

242. Why was badger hunting an amusement of former 
times? 

Because the animal is of a very pugnacious disposition, 
possessing great muscular power and astonishing strength 
of jaws; its strong leathery hide also provides it with a 
defensive coat of mail, and from these combined character- 
istics the animal is rendered a formidable enemy to attack 
or to cope with. 

243. The badger is taken in various ways. The favorite mode, and 
that which is perhaps the most successful, is by catching him in a 
sack placed at the entrance of his hole. The haunt of the badger being 
ascertained, a moonlight night is chosen, when he is out feeding, and a 
small sack is placed within the mouth of the hole, fastened at the 
outside, with the mouth of the bag outwards, and having a running 
string round it. Two or three couples of hounds are then thrown off 
at some distance, and as soon as the badger hears their cry, he makes 
for his home with all speed, and runs into the sack, which closes 
behind him by the tightening of the running string round it. Another 
method is by digging him out. This, however, is laborious, and not 
always successful, particularly in sandy soils, in which the badger will 
easily foil the dogs which pursue him in his subterranean passage, by 
throwing the earth back upon them and blocking up their way, whilst 
he takes advantage of their loss of timet and makes his way to the 
surface. 

244. What gave rise to the old proverb of "Catch a 
"Weasel asleep" etc.? 

When awake weasels are particularly expert in eluding 
capture. But it is scarcely possible to imagine an animal 
sleeping more soundly than the weasel does when once it 
gives itself up to rest. It may be taken up by the head, the 
heels, or the tail, and swung about for a considerable time 
before it begins to awake. In fact, although it is a snappish 
little animal when awake, there is not one with which 
greater liberties may be taken when once asleep. 

245. Why is the weasel peculiarly adapted for hunt- 
ing mice in wheat ricks? 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 51 

"Out of my door, you witch, you rag, you baggage, you pole-cat!" 
— Shakspere. 



Because it possesses a long flexible body and an ex- 
traordinary length of neck; the closeness of its fur, and its 
extreme agility and quickness of movement, combine to 
adapt it to such habits, in which it is also much aided by 
its power of hunting by scent. 

246. In pursuing a rat or a mouse the weasel not only follows it 
as long as it remains in sight, but continues the chase after it has dis- 
appeared, with the head raised a little above the ground, following the 
exact track taken by its destined prey. Should it lose the scent, it 
returns to the point where it was lost, and quarters the ground with 
great diligence till it has recovered ii, and thus, by dint of persever- 
ance, will ultimately hunt down £ swifter and even a stronger animal 
than itself. But this is not all: in ^he pertinacity of its pursuit it will 
readily take the water, and swim with great ease after its prey. 

247. What gave rise to the saying of "Stinking like a 
polecat"? 

The pole-cat is provided with small glands on the pos- 
terior part of the body which secrete a fluid possessing a 
most offensive odor. The purpose of this odor has been 
held to be the protection of the pole-cat from animals that 
otherwise would prey upon it. 

248. A similar power is possessed by numerous animals called 
tnephitic (offensive to the smell). Of these the chinche appears to 
possess it in a high degree. The offensive odor is confined exclusively 
to the apparatus by means of which it is produced and emitted; and 
when this is removed, the offensiveness ceases. When the animal is 
pursued and annoyed the battery is discharged, not in mere gas, but 
in a liquid, which instantly evaporates, and is so buoyant and dispersive, 
and at the same time so powerful, that it will taint the air for a mile 
or for several miles round. When near at hand, it is perfectly intol- 
erable, and the staunchest dog is instantly arrested by it. 

The following brief story is told by Kalmer: — "In the year 1749, 
one of these animals came near the farm where I lived. It was in 
winter, during the night, and the dogs that were on the watch pursued 
it for some time, until it discharged against them. Although I was 
in my bed a good way off, I thought I should be suffocated; and the 
cow£ and oxen by their lowings showed how much they were affected 
by the stench. About the end of the same year another of these animals 
crept into our cellar, but did not exhale the smallest scent, because it 
was not disturbed. A foolish woman, however, who perceived it at 
night by the shining of its eyes, killed it, and at the moment its stench 
began to spread. The whole cellar was filled with it to such a degree 
that the woman kept her bed {or several days afterwards, and all the 
bread and meat and other provisions that were kept there were so 
affected that they were thrown out of doors." 

249. What originated the proverb* "He builds closely 
with dry stones who can build out the TveaseF 9 ? 

Because the animal has such extreme flexibility of body 



82 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 




"I ordered the proper officer of my court to ferret them out of their 
respective lanes, and bring them before me/' — Tatler. 

that it has been known to worm its body through a hole 
less than three inches in diameter. It is also a very expert 
climber and can ascend a wall or a tree with the utmost 
celerity. 

250. Why are ferrets dangerous animals to \eep in a 
stale of domestication? 

Because they are animals incapable of discriminating 
attachment, and the tamencss they evince is deceptive, being 
nothing more than the indiffer- 
ence and absence of fear and 
anger, which are the result of 
hereditary dependence upon and 
association with mankind. But 
when an opportunity arrives, and this animal is tempted by 
the taste or smell of blood, the ferret becomes indiscriminate 
and savage in its attack even on human beings. 

251. The following ancedote related by Mr. Jesse in illustration of 
the ferocity of the ferret is recorded here with a view of discouraging 
persons from making pets of these vicious creatures: — Some few years 
ago, a poor woman, holding a mangled infant in her arms, rushed, 
screaming with agony and fright, into my friend's house, who is a 
surgeon, imploring him to save the child's life, who, she said, had 
been almost killed by a ferret. The face, neck, and arms, were dread- 
fully lacerated, the jugular vein had been opened, as also the temporal 
artery; the eyes were greatly injured, and indeed, the child, who is still 
living, has lost the entire sight of one of them, and has very imperfect 
vision in the other. Having stopped the still bleeding vessels, my friend 
accompanied the mother to her cottage, on entering which the child, 
in some degree recovering from its state of apparent death, began to 
cry, when the ferret was in an instant seen rushing from behind some 
basins where he had taken shelter,, and, with its head erect, boldly 
came forward and met the infuriated parent in the middle of the room, 
still holding the infant in her arms. On my friend's kicking the ferret, 
as the first impulse of protection, the animal endeavored to seize his 
leg, and not until his back was broken by repeated kicks did he give 
over his earnest and reiterated attempts to renew his sanguinary feast; 
indeed, whilst in the agonies of death, the piteous screams of the child 
seemed to rouse him to vain efforts to regain his prey. The ferret 
was of large growth, and much distended with the infant's blood; and, 
although formerly of peculiar shyness, yet he lost sight of fear and 
became ferocious in the pursuit of the unfortunate infant. It appears the 
poor woman had left her child (about six months old) in a cradle whilst 
she went to market, when it is supposed the infant's cry had arrested 
the attention of the ferret, who managed to make his escape, and thus 
effected his purpose. There is good reason to believe he must have 
passed more than half an hour in the indulgence of his appetite, from 
the circumstances of the neighbors having heard the piercing shrieks of 
the child for a long time without the slightest suspicion of the mother's 
absence. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 83 

"Th* amphibious otter bold, the weasel sly, 
Pilfering the yolk from its enclosing shell." — Dodsley. 

252. Why do otters, when hunting for fish, always 
swim against the stream? 

Because fishes, when reposing or waiting for food, have 
their heads up the water; and thus the otter can come upon 
them and capture them unawares. 

Another reason is, that as otters return to the neigh- 
borhood of their burrow with the fish they have captured, 
they can more easily do so by swimming with their burthen 
in the direction of the stream. 

253. What are the points of similarity and difference 
between the dog and the wolf, to which animal the origin of 
the dog is attributed? 

The skeleton of the wolf does not differ materially from 
that of the dog more than that of the different kinds of dogs 
vary; the cranium is similar, and they agree in nearly all 
the other essental points ; the dog and wolf will readily breed 
with each other, and their progeny thus obtained will again 
mingle with the dog. The most prominent circumstance 
which marks a decided difference between the two animals 
is the eye: this organ in the dog of every country and 
species has a circular pupil ; but the position or form of 
the pupil in the wolf is oblique. It should also be remem- 
bered that in every part of the globe in which the wolf is 
found, a peculiar setting on of the curve of the tail, and 
a singularity of voice, cannot fail of being observed; to 
which may be added, that the dog exists in every latitude 
and in every climate, while the habitation of the wolf is 
confined to certain parts of the globe. 

254. There is, also, a marked difference in the temper and habits 
of the two. The dog is, generally speaking, easily manageable, but 
nothing will, in the majority of cases, render the wolf moderately tract- 
able. There are, however, exceptions to this. M. F. Cuvier gives an 
account of a young wolf who followed his master everywhere, and 
showed a degree of affection and submission scarcely inferior to the 
domesticated dog. His master being unavoidably absent, he was sent 
to the menagerie, where he pined for his loss, and would scarcely take 
any food for a considerable time. At length, however, he attached him- 



84 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The poor dog! in life the firmest friend, 
The first to welcome, foremost to defend; 
Whose honest heart is still his master's own. 
Who labors, fights, lives, breathes for him alone." — Byron. 



self to his keepers, and appeared to have forgotten his former associate. 
At the expiration of eighteen months his master returned, and, the 
moment his voice was heard, the wolf recognized him and lavished on 
his old friend the most affectionate caresses. A second separation fol- 
lowed, which lasted three years, and again the long-remembered voice 
was recognized, and replied to with impatient cries; after which, rush- 
ing on his master, he licked his face with every mark of joy, menacing 
his keepers, towards whom he had just before been exhibiting fondness. 
A third separation occurred, and he became gloomy and melancholy. He 
suffered the caresses of none but his keepers, and towards them he 
often manifested the original ferocity of his species. 

255. Assuming the original identity of the dog and the 
wolf, why is there a difference in the pupils of their eyes? 

Professor Bell attributes the forward direction of the 
eyes in dogs, and the circular pupil, to the constant habit, 
for many generations, of looking forwards towards their 
masters. 

256. Why may we infer that all the varieties of dogs 
spring from a common origin? 

Because we have many opportunities of observing the 
varieties produced by accidental causes, and we see those 
accidental varieties diligently cultivated into new species, 
altogether different in form and use from any that preceded 
them. 

257. We see the changes climate and breeding effect in dogs illus- 
trated by the rough Irish or Highland greyhound and the smoother one 
of the southern, part of Britain; the more delicate one of Greece, and 
the diminutive one of Italy, and the hairless one of Africa and Brazil. 
One of the most striking proofs of the influence of climate on the 
form and character of this animal occurs in the. bull-dog. When trans- 
ported to India he{ becomes, in a few years, greatly altered in form, 
loses all his former courage and ferocity, and becomes a perfect cowara.* 

258. Why is the Isle of Dogs so called? 

Because in the reign of King John it was made the 
receptacle and breeding ground of the greyhounds and 
spaniels of that monarch. It was selected on account of 
its contiguity to Waltham and other royal forests, where 
coursing was a frequent amusement. 

* "Youatt on the Dog." 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 85 

"The greyhounds forth are brought, for coursing then in case, 
And choicely in the slip, one leading forth a brace; 
The finder puts her up, and gives her coursers law." — Drayton. 



259. Why does the greyhound hunt by sight alone? 



Because he has been 
trained to depend upon 
his speed, and that speed 
is utterly incompatible 
with the tracing of scent. 



260. Packs of hounds run by sight when the nature of the country 
allows them to have a full view of the hare. When thus running they 
nearly double their speed, but are liable to lose ground by being thrown 
out in consequence of a sudden turn, or change of country; they have 
to seek the scent before they can again take up the running. The 
English greyhound, on the contrary, is called off the moment he loses 
sight of the hare, the re-finding of which is left to the spaniel. 

261. Why should the neck of the greyhound be long? 
Because it is necessary that this portion of the frame 

should correspond with the length of the legs, and thus 
enable the dog to seize and lift the game as he rapidly 
pursues his course, without throwing any undue or danger- 
ous weight on the fore extremities. In the act of seizing 
the hare the short-necked dog may lose the center of gravity 
and fall. 

262. Why are greyhounds less attached to their mas- 
ters than are other dogs? 

Because the greyhound has less opportunities of form- 
ing individual attachments than other dogs; the whole pur- 
pose of his life being to follow game. The keeper exer- 
cises over him a tyrannical power, and the owner seldom 
notices him in the manner which begets affection or scarcely 
recognition. 

263. Why in coursing are tn>o dogs employed? 

Because hares make sudden turns, by which they fre- 
quently escape from single dogs. A good greyhound will 
reach a hare if she runs straight; but the moment he is 



86 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"So flewed, so sanded, and their heads are hung 
With ears that sweep away the morning dew; 
Crook-knee' d, and dew-lapp'd, like Thessalian bulls; 
Slow in pursuit, but matched in mouth like bells." — Shakspere. 

about to strike at her she turns short, and the dog, unable 
to stop himself, is thrown from ten to twenty yards from 
her. When, however, pursued by a couple of dogs, the 
hare has a more difficult game to play, as it frequently 
happens that when she is turned by the leading dog she 
cannot avoid the strokes of the second. 

264. Why should beagles have large heads? 

Because they depend al- 
most wholly upon scent for 
their success in the hunt. A 
large broad head is accom- 
panied by expanded nasal 
organs, contributing to acute 
smelling; while the same 
form of head is adapted for 
the reverberation of the sound 
for which the beagle is re- 
markable. 

265. Why should sporting dogs generally be kept to 
their own game? 

Because by such restriction they become improved for 
their special duty, having only one scent, and one style 
of hunting. 

266. Why have bloodhounds proved so efficacious in 
the pursuit of fugitives? 

Because special means have been carefully employed 
with the horrible design of training these dogs to enter- 
tain an insatiable thirst for human blood. 



267. Bloodhounds were formerly much employed in pursuing crim- 
inals escaped from justice, or in tracing out robbers or enemies, whose 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



87 



"Soon the sagacious brute, his curling tail 
Flourished in air, low bending, piies around 
His busy nose, the steaming vapor snuffs." — Somerville. 




course was invariably discovered, when once the bloodhound was placed 
upon their trail. In the border country of Scotland, they were formerly 

much employed for such uses, 
but at present the race has be- 
come almost forgotten. In the 
countries of South America, the 
Spaniards employed fierce dogs 
to aid them in conquering the 
Indians, but it is not certain 
that the dogs, trained by them 
to this cruel business, belonged 
to the present variety. 

All the varieties of hound, 
however, have much sagacity, 
and most of the larger and 
stronger breeds have great 
acuteness of scent, and might, 
without much difficulty, be 
trained to act as bloodhounds. 

268. Why is the sense of smell so acute in dogs? 
The olfactory nerve in the horse, the dog, the ox, and 

the swine, iz the largest of all the cerebral nerves, and 
of much greater comparative bulk in the quadruped than 
in the human being. The sense of smell, in proportion 
to the size of the nerve upon which it depends, is still 
more acute. The relative size of the nerve bears an in- 
variable proportion to the necessity for an acute sense of 
smell in the various animals — large in the horse, compared 
with the olfactory nferve in the ox, when is sent into the 
fields to shift for himself — larger still in the swine, whose 
food is buried under the soil, or deeply immersed in refuse 
— and still larger in the dog. 

269. Why do dogs lose their scent for game-birds 
during the season of incubation? 

It is a common notion that this arises from some tem- 
porary defect in the organ of smell of the dog; but it 
would appear more probable that birds lose, or rather do 
not emit, scent during the time in question, and this may 
be owing to the habits or condition of the birds being 
changed during the period of incubation. In this may be 
perceived a wise and merciful provision of nature to protect 
the birds from harm during this trying and important season. 



88 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Neglected Tray and pointer lie, 
And covies unmolested fly." — Prior. 

270. Why do sporting dogs make what is termed a 
"point"? 

Because they are conscious of having got too close 
upon the birds, and halt suddenly for fear of disturbing 
them before a shot can be given; and this action not only 
accomplishes the end in view, but serves to acquaint the 
sportsman that there is game in the immediate locality. 

271. The moment the pointer falls upon the scent, he not only 
makes a sudden halt, but assumes at once an attitude of very great 
peculiarity, and such as must be seen before it can be fully appreciated 
or understood. In an instant he may be seen standing on three legs, 
one of the fore feet being raised, and his face, back, and tail all drawn 
into a line. This is his invariable position when the scent is taken 
naturally, but when it is interfered with, such as running with the wind, 
or barred by an impenetrable fence, or by other circumstances, and the 
dog stumbles in consequence suddenly upon the game, he then pulls 
himself up so instantaneously that not one of his limbs is suffered to 
move after the instant the scent is discovered; and however singular the 
conformation of his body at that moment, or however painful to him 
that attitude, he will maintain it with unswerving steadiness until the 
sportsman arrives. Sometimes it has happened that when the pointer 
has been in the act of springing over a strong fence, such as a stone 
wall, he has hit upon the scent of the birds lying close to it on the 
other side, and he has then been seen to halt suddenly on the top of 
it with his four feet all collected together, and his body almost all 
doubled up, thus fixing himself like a statue. 

272. What is "scent"? 

It is the odor, or effluvium, which is constantly issuing 
from every animal, and especially when that animal is in 
more than usual exercise. In a state of heat or excitement, 
the pores of the skin appear relaxed, and a fluid or aqueous 
vapor is secreted which, escaping in large quantities, adheres 
to the persons or substances upon which it falls, and is 
particularly capable of impressing the olfactory nerves.* 

273. That an animal emitting odorous exhalations should leave behind, 
it a somewhat abiding scent, is no matter of surprise when we con- 
sider what some solid substances are capable of doing, and that the 
odorous excretiois of animals derive their property from minute particles 
of similar solids. Some substances possess very strong odorous proper- 
ties, without losing weight in any appreciable degree by the diffusion of 
their particles through the air. This is the case, for example with 
musk, which is obtained from the musk-deer, a grain of which has been 
kept freely exposed to the air of a room, whose doors and windows 
were kept constantly open for a period of ten years, during which 

■ i 

* "Youatt on the Dog." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 89 

"To every shrub the warm effluvia cling, 
Hang on the grass, impregnant earth and skies, 
With nostrils op'ning wide, o'er hill and dale, 
The vig'rous hounds pursue." — Somerville. 



time the air, thus continually changed, was completely impregnated with 
the odor of musk; and yet, at the end of that time, the particle was 
found to have not perceptibly diminished in weight. 

274. Why is a moist atmosphere the best for scent? 

Because moisture not only imbibes and holds the pecu- 
liar matters yielding the odor, but presents it to the nerves 
of smell, which are spread out upon the internal chambers 
of the nose in that state which is best adapted to impress 
the nerves. 

275. We know that just before rains set in, when the 
atmosphere is humid, but not wet, drains give forth un- 
pleasant smells. Certain bodies possess the property of 
exciting sensations of a peculiar nature, which cannot be 
perceived by the organs of taste or touch, but seem to 
depend upon the diffusion of the particles of the substances 
through the surrounding air in a state of extreme minute- 
ness. As the solubility of a substance in liquid seems a 
necessary condition of its exciting the sense of taste, so does 
its volatility or tendency to a vaporous state appear requisite 
for its possession of odorous particles. 

276. Why is a wet day unfavorable for scent? 
Because then the odorous effluvia becomes, as it were, 

"drowned" by excess of moisture. It is absorbed and 
neutralized by water, instead of being suspended in vapor. 
We know that persons having colds, in which condition the 
mucous membranes of the nose are in an extreme state of 
humidity, lose their power of smell. 

277. Why, when the ground is hard and the air dry, 
is there little scent? 

Because the vapor which serves as the menstrum of 
communication is absent. 

278. Why does scent sometimes lie breast high? 
Because sometimes a stratum of humid air lies over the 

earth a little above the surface. This arises from the 
difference between the temperature of the earth and the 



90 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"But the milder ayre with season moderate, 
Gently attempered, and disposed so well 
That still it breathed forth sweet and holesome smell." — Spenser. 

air, and is frequently made manifest by the "creeping 
mists" of morning and evening. The scent is most mani- 
fest where a favorable condition of humidity prevails, and 
hence it is strongest in the upper stratum. 

279. Why does scent rarely lie with a north or cold 
wind? 

Because those winds being generally dry, as well as 
cold, are unfavorable to the retention of scent, which be- 
comes diffused and weakened instead of retained, as it 
were, in solution. 

280. The different manners or attitudes in which the dog runs afford 
satisfactory and pleasing illustrations of the nature of the scent. Some- 
times they will be seen galloping with their noses in the air, as if their 
game had flown away, and an hour or two afterwards every one of them 
will have his muzzle on the ground. The condition of the atmosphere 
has changed, and the scent has arisen or fallen in proportion.* 

281. Why is scent generally good when the wind is 
southerly? 

Because the south wind is generally humid and warm. 
For a similar reason, a westerly wind is, next to the south 
wind, in its favorable conditions. 

282. In the evening when dews are forming, we recognize the fra- 
grance of flowers and the odor of sweet hay. This is a sufficient con- 
firmation that a moderate degree of humidity is best adapted to the 
transmission of scents. 

283. Why, when cob-webs hang on the bushes, is 
scent seldom good? 

Because spiders spread out their webs in dry air, and 
gather them in when it is moist or wet. Therefore, when 
the webs are out it is a sure indication that the dryness of 
the air is unfavorable to scent. 

284. Why, in a hard rain, if the air is mild, will 
scent sometimes be very good? 

Because after a heavy rain the air is left in a dry state, 
ready immediately to absorb vapor. The mildness of the 
temperature at once causes evaporation, and produces the 

* "Youatt on the Dog." 






KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 91 

" 'Tis raging noon ; and, vertical, the sun 
Darts on the head direct his forceful rays, 
O'er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye 
Can sweep." — Thomson. 

same atmospheric condition immediately after rain as gen- 
erally occurs before it. 

285. Why do sudden storms destroy scent? 
Because they rapidly change the conditions upon which 

it depends. Storms of rain produce a superabundance of 
wet; storms of wind dry the air, and disperse the effluvia; 
storms of hail and snow produce cold, and, if succeeded 
by an immediate thaw, result in a wet surface, with sluggish 
evaporation; but if no thaw occurs, then a cold dry air 
rests over the earth. 

286. Why are sunshiny days not good for scent? 
Because then there is a rapid movement of the vapors 

of the earth, from the surface to a considerable elevation 
in the atmosphere. This may be observed in what is called 
the "steaming" of the earth on a hot day. The scent is, 
in such a condition, borne away, and dispersed above the 
reach of the dogs employed in the hunt. 

287. Why is a warm day without sunshine good for 
scent? 

Because then the evaporation from the earth's surface 
proceeds gradually. Instead of rising rapidly under the 
glaring heat of the sun, the vapors lie for a time upon the 
surface; and when the vapors lie the scent lies also. 

288. Why does scent lie badly upon fallows and beaten 
roads ? 

Because there is nothing to detain it; every blade of 
grass, or moss, or frond of fern, serves to give stillness to 
the stratum of air immediately over the earth's surface. 
But where there are no such checks to atmospheric motion, 
every impulse of the air spreads far and wide, and disperses 
all local exhalations. 

289. Why is scent frequently good by hedgerows, when 
bad in the coppice or in the open field? 

Because the coppice may be too wet, and the scent be 



92 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"And, all within, it full of wyndings is 
And hidden wayes, that scarce a hound by smell 
Can follow out those false footsteps of his." — Spenser. 

drowned; and the open field, being quickly dried by the 
sun, or swept by a brisk wind, the scent may be dispersed; 
while the hedgerow sheltered from the wind, and partially 
so from the sun, may preserve the conditions required. 

290. Why do dogs of different breeds exhibit a pecu- 
liar faculty for particular scents? 

These peculiarities are dependent partly upon organiza- 
tion and upon training. The short thick nose of the beagle 
is adapted for a ground-scent, while the longer nose of the 
setter is better adapted for catching the impregnated air. 

In the breaking-in of dogs it is necessary to correct 
their false points at first; they will stand at larks, black- 
birds, thrushes, and, indeed, at anything emitting an un- 
usual odor. By discipline they are taught to disregard all 
scents but those of their particular game. The foxhound, 
well broken-in, will rarely challenge at the scent of the 
hare, nor will he even change his fox. 

291. The scent of different animals possesses very various degrees 
of pungency and distinctive qualities. Scents that are appreciable by 
some animals are inperceptible by others: thus the exhalations of the 
fox, badger, or pole-cat, are obvious to man; but those of the hare, 
rabbit, and winged game, to their enemies only. The animal effluvia 
themselves differ, not only according to the variety of the animal they 
escape from, but also as the exhalations of each animal vary with cir- 
cumstances. The hunted stag is never changed — the hunted fox and 
the hunted hare may be changed many times. "The Country Squire' r on 
the same head remarks : — "It is to be remembered that there is no small 
accidental difference in the very particles of scent; I mean, that they 
are stronger, sweeter, or more distinguishable at one time than at 
another, and that this difference is found not only in diverse, but often 
in the same individual creature, according to the changes of the air 
or the soil, as well as of her own motions or conditions. That there 
is a different scent in other animals of the same species is evident 
from draught hounds, which were formerly made use of for tracking and 
pursuing thieves and deer-steal ers; or rather from any common cur or 
spaniel, which will hunt out their masters or their master's horse dis- 
tinctly from all others; and that it is the same with the hare is no less 
visible with the old beagles, which will not readily change for a fresh 
one, unless she starts in view, or unless a fault happens that puts them 
in confusion, and inclines them in despair to take up with the next they 
can come by." Had the Country Squire been a stag-hunter also, he 
would have noted this peculiarity of the scent of the hunted stag, which, 
as already observed, is never lost, though scores of this kind are near. 
This veteran judiciously remarks on the nature of scent, that many cir- 
cumstances may change it; according to his opinion, it is at one time 
composed of very fine particles, and at another of particles equally gross, 
and that this difference is frequently occasioned by accidental circum- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 93 

"It was a comfort, too, to see 

Those dogs that from him ne'er would rove, 
And always eyed him reverently, 

With glances of depending love." — Hallam. 



stances. Thus, he says, the coursing of a cur dog, which may follow 
the hare during the run, will commonly produce a different effluvium 
to the rest, and a fault is therefore almost always the consequence of 
this accident in the hare chase. "The hounds," he says, "must be again 
put on the scent before they will acknowledge it for their game; the 
reason is, the changing the motion causes one in the perspiring particles. 
The alterations of scent in a yielding hare are less frequently productive 
of faults, because they are more gradual, and insensibly grow smaller; 
but that alterations there are every dog-boy knows, by the old hounds 
pressing forward with greater earnestness as the hare is nearer her end.* 

292. Why are foxes that are found early in the day 
easily caught? 

Because, as they feed by night, they are incapable of 
fast running before their nocturnal meal has been digested. 

293. Why is the Newfoundland dog of greater service 
to man than any other, especially as a water-dog? 

Because he not only displays sagacity and willingness 
in assisting drowning persons, but he is also provided with 
semi-webbed feet, which make him a good swimmer. 

294. Innumerable instances of Newfoundland dogs having saved human 
life are on record. The following is a case in point: — A person was 
once traveling in Holland, accompanied by a Newfoundland dog. Not 
taking proper heed of his steps on an evening walk along a high bank 
by the side of one of those deep canals common in that country, his 
foot slipped, and he fell into the water; and, being unable to swim, 
he was soon deprived of his senses. In the mean time, the dog no 
sooner discovered the danger to which his master was exposed, than he 
was in the water, and engaged in the struggle to rescue him from peril. 
A party at a distance saw the sagacious creature at one moment push- 
ing, and at another dragging the body towards a small creek, where 
at length he succeeded in landing his charge, and placing it as far 
from the water as possible. This being done, the dog just shook him- 
self, and then licked the face and hands of his apparently dead master. 
The body being conveyed to a neighboring house, the efforts to restore 
animation were successful. From the marks of teeth on the body, it 
appeared that the dog had taken his first hold on the shoulder; but 
finding that this did not keep the head out of water, the instinct of 
the animal prompted him to change his grasp from the shoulder to the 
neck, by which he was enabled to raise the head, and to keep it so 
for a distance of a quarter of a mile. 

295. Why does a dog toss his head about in such a 
variety of attitudes when endeavoring to masticate a tough 
substance? 

Because, owing to a limited power of the mouth, he 

1 i 

* Blaine's "Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports." 



94 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"When I frown, they hang their most dejected heads, 
Like fearful sheep hounds ; show 'em a crust of bread, 
They'll saint me presently, and skip like asses." 

— Beaumont and Fletcher. 

can divide a portion of tough matter only by repeated ver- 
tical bites; but if he has much labor with the substance, 
and his hunger urges him to eat it, he may be seen shifting 
his head, now higher at one side and then higher at the 
other alternately, in order to bring the whole under his 
teeth; and he also flings his head upwards and downwards, 
and gives a snap, so that the lower jaw may bite with a 
momentum, while the substance to be divided rests against 
the teeth of the upper jaw. 

296. Why may it be inferred that the habits of the 
shepherd's dog are the result of instruction rather than in- 
stinct? 

Because the actions of these dogs appear to be governed 
by an intelligence nearly allied to human reason; and what 
is much too artificial, and too greatly opposed to the nature 
of the animal, is to be attributed to instruction. 

297. Very different propensities are found in various breeds of 
dogs, and they are always such as are particularly suited to the pur- 
poses to which each of these breeds has long been and is still applied. 
No one can suppose that nature has given to these varieties of the same 
species such very different instinctive propensities, and that each of 
these breeds should possess those that are best suited for the uses 
to which they are respectively applied. It certainly seems more prob- 
able that these breeds, having been long treated as they now are.* and 
applied to the same uses, should have acquired habits by experience 
and instruction which, in course) of time, have become hereditary. In 
short, that by far the greater part of the propensities that are generally 
supposed to be instinctive, are not implanted in animals by nature, but 
are the result of long experience, acquired and accumulated through 
many generations, so as in course of time to assume the character of 
instinct. 

298. How may dogs be taught to distinguish playing 
cards, and to pick them out from the pack correctly as they 
are named? 

The dog is taught to do this by frequently offering him 
food on a card he is unacquainted with, after which they 
send him to find it out from the rest, and he never mistakes. 
The habit of profiting by that discovery and receiving 
caresses enables him by degrees to grow acquainted with 
each particular card. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 95 

"So true, so brave, a lamb at home, 
A lion in the chase." 



299. Why do dogs betray fear when a person who has 
a lame and stooping gait approaches? 

Because the action which the lame person uses in walk- 
ing has a close resemblance to the attitude of a person 
stooping to pick up a stone. 

300. Why does a dog generally tarn round three or 
jour times before he lies down to sleep? 

It is supposed that this singular and almost invariable 
practice is one of the dog's natural instincts, altered or 
modified to his domesticated life; for, when in a wild state, 
he takes up his night's quarters in a field of tall withered 
grass or among reeds or rushes, thus wheeling round he 
separates the vegetation in the spot where he is to 
lie, and forms a bed with overhanging curtains all round 
for his protection and warmth. 

301. Why should the treatment of dogs be regulated 
more by moral than by brute force? 

Because the nervous system in this creature is largely 
developed, exerting an influence over all his actions and 
giving character to the species. The brain of the dog is 
seldom in repose; even when asleep the twitching of the 
legs, and the suppressed sounds, inform us that the dog 
is dreaming. No animal is more actuated by the power of 
imagination. To diseases of cerebral or spinal character 
it is more liable that any other domesticated animal. Its 
very bark is symbolical of temperament, and' its mode of 
attack energetically declares the excitability of its nature. 
The most fearful of all diseases to which it is exposed 
(rabies) is essentially of a nervous character. Delirium 
usually precedes its death, and nervous excitability is the 
common accompaniment of most of its disorders. This 
peculiar temperament of the animal at once suggests how 
much may be done by gentle treatment; while on the other 
hand it makes known to us the fact that words spoken to 
a dog in a harsh and unkind tone, and the infliction of blows 
or kicks, may occasion indescribable pain. 



96 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The dog, loud barking, 'mid the glittering rocks, 
Hunts, where his master points, the intercepted flocks." — Wordsworth. 

302. Why have dogs and cats great difficulty in masti- 
cating vegetable substances? 

Because, being carnivorous animals, their teeth and the 
motion of their jaws is ill-adapted to the mastication of 
vegetable substances, which they sometimes eat when do- 
mesticated. 

303. As even those carnivorous animals which are best adapted 
for living upon vegetable food, and live most upon it, have no grinding 
motion of the jaws, they divide vegetable substances with much more 
difficulty than those races which have the grinding motion and the short 
teeth, or true molars; and, as the number of comparatively flattened 
teeth diminishes, the difficulty increases. One case of this gradation 
may be seen in the domestic dog and cat. The dog is the less carniv- 
orous of the two, and as he uses the mouth only in the capture and 
killing of his prey, he has much more powerful and varied action of 
the neck. He can divide a portion of tough vegetable matter, as for 
instance a crust of bread, only by repeated vertical bites; but if he has 
much labor with the substance, and his hunger is strong enough to 
induce him to eat, he may be seen shifting his head, now higher at 
the one side, then higher at the other, alternately, in order to bring 
the whole under his teeth, and he also flings the head upwards or 
downwards, and gives a snap, so that the lower jaw may bite with a 
momentum, while the substance to be divided rests against the teeth 
of the upper jaw. The cat has a great deal more trouble in this 
imperfect mastication, as she cannot snap and derive advantage from 
the momentum of the jaw as the dog does; thus with her the division 
of hard vegetable food, so as to prepare it for the stomach, is no 
easy matter. 



"The dog," says Mr. Youatt, "is the only animal that is capable 
of disinterested affection. He is the only one that regards the human 
being as his companion, and follows him as his friend; the only one 
that seems to possess a natural desire to be useful to him, and from 
a spontaneous impulse attaches himself to man. We take the bridle 
from the mouth of the horse, and turn him free into the pasture, and 
he testifies his joy in his partially recovered liberty. We exact from 
the dog the service that is required of him, and he still follows us. He 
solicits to be continued as our companion and our friend. Many an 
expressive action tells us how much he is pleased and thankful. He 
shares our abundance, and he is, content with the scantiest and most 
humble fare. He loves us while living, and has been known to pine 
away on the grave of his master." 

A few anecdotes of this faithful animal will be inter- 
esting: — - 

TYKE THE FIRE DOG. 

304. A few years ago the public were amused with an account 
given in a newspaper of a dog which possessed the strange fancy of 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 91 

"That instinct suggests for them everywhere what is most for their 

safety, and makes them many times sagacious above 

our apprehension." — More. 



attending all the fires that occurred in the metropolis. The discovery 
of this predilection was made by a gentleman residing a few miles 
from town, who was called up in the middle of the night by the intel- 
ligence that the premises adjoining his house of business- were on fire. 
"The removal of my books and papers," said he, in telling the story, 
"of course claimed my attention; yet, notwithstanding this, and the 
bustle which prevailed, my eye every now and then rested on a dog 
which, during the hottest progress of the conflagration, I could not 
help noticing running about, and apparently taking a deep interest in 
what was going on; contriving to keep himself out of everybody's way, 
and yet always present amidst the thickest of the stir. When the fire 
was got under control, and I had leisure to look about me, I again 
observed the dog, which, with the firemen, appeared to be resting from 
duty, and was led to make some enquiries respecting him. 'Is this 
your dog, my friend?' said I to a fireman. 'No, Sir,' answered he; 
'it does not belong to me, or to any one in particular. We call him 
the firemen's dog.' 'The firemen's dog!' I replied.* 'Why so; has he 
no master?' 'No, Sir,' rejoined the fireman, 'he calls none of us 
master, though we are all of us willing enough to give him a night's 
lodging and a pennyworth of meat. But he won't stay long with any 
of us. His delight is to be at all the fires in London; and, far or 
near, we generally find him on the road as we are going along, and 
sometimes, if it is out of town, we give him a lift. I don't think there 
has been a fire for these two or three years past which he has not 
been at.' 

"This communication was so extraordinary that I found it difficult 
to believe the story until it was confirmed by the concurrent testimony 
of several other firemen. None of them, however, were able to give 
any account of the early habits of the dog, or to offer any explanation 
of the circumstances which led to this singular propensity. 

"Some time afterwards I was again called up in the night to a 
fire in the village in which I resided (Camberwell, in Surrey), and 
to my surprise here I again met with 'the firemen's dog,' still alive 
and well, pursuing, with the same apparent interest and satisfaction, 
the exhibition of that which seldom fails to bring with it disaster and 
misfortune, oftentimes loss of life and ruin. Still he called no man 
master, disdained to receive bed or board from the same hand more 
than a night or two at a time, nor could the firemen trace out his 
resting-place." 

Such was the account of this interesting animal, as it appeared in 
the newspapers, to which were shortly afterwards, appended several 
circumstances communicated by a fireman at one of the police offices. 
A magistrate having asked bim whether it was a fact that the dog was 
present at most of the fires that occurred in the metropolis, the fireman 
replied that he never knew "Tyke," as he was called, to bes absent 
from a fire upon any occasion that he (the fireman) attended himself. 
The magistrate said the dog must have an extraordinary predilection for 
fires. He then asked what length of time he had been known to possess 
that propensity. The fireman replied that he knew Tyke for the last 
nine years; and, although he was getting old, yet the moment the 
engines were about, Tyke was to be seen as active as ever, running off 
in the direction of the fire. The magistrate inquired whether the dog 
liked any particular fireman. The fireman replied that Tyke liked one 



98 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"But bold Tydides to the rescue goes, 
A single warrior 'midst a host of foes." — Pope. 



fireman as well as another. He had no particular favorites, but passed 
his time amongst them; sometimes going to the house of one, and then 
to another, and off to a third when he was tired. Day or night, it was 
all the same to him; if a fire broke out, there was he in the midst of 
the bustle, running from one engine to another, anxiously looking after 
the firemen; and, although pressed upon by crowds, yet, from his dex- 
terity, he always escaped accidents, only now and then getting a ducking 
from the engine, which he rather liked than otherwise. The magistrate 
said that Tyke was a most extraordinary animal; and, having expressed 
a wish to see him, he was shortly afterwards exhibited at the office, and 
some other peculiarities respecting him were related. There was nothing 
at all particular in the appearance of the dog. He was a rough-looking, 
small animal, of the terrier breed, and seemed to be in excellent condi- 
tion — no doubt from the care taken of him by the firemen belonging to 
the different companies. There was some difficulty experienced in bring- 
ing him to the office, as he did not much relish going any distance from 
where the firemen are to be found, except in cases of attending with 
them at a conflagration, and then distance was of no consequence. It 
was found necessary to use stratagem for the purpose. A fireman com- 
menced running; Tyke, accustomed to follow upon such occasions, set 
out after him; but this person having slackened his pace on the way, 
the sagacious animal, knowing there was no fire, turned back, and it was 
necessary to carry him to the office.* 

The Author recently saw a fire-dog (but is not aware whether it is 
the same as described by Mr. Jesse in the above narrative, though he 
thinks not from the description) ; it wore a collar, bearing a suitable 
inscription, recording its feats in connection with various fires. This 
dog would run up the steps of the fire-escapes, enter rooms, and, crouch- 
ing along the floor, its head below the clouds of smoke, would find 
out persons lying in their beds in a half-suffocated state, and then, 
setting up a loud howl, would inform the firemen. At the time the 
Author saw it, the dog suffered from falls, and wounds caused by the 
wheels of fire-escapes and engines passing over it. It was no longer 
able to ascend the steps of the fire-escape; but, whenever a door was 
opened, it rushed in and ascended the stairs, and explored every part 
of the house to which it could find access. 

A PIECE OF MONEY SINGULARLY RESTORED BY A DOG TO 
HIS MASTER. 

305. A gentleman in Suffolk, on an excursion with his friend, was 
attended by a Newfoundland dog, which soon became the subject of 
conversation. The master, after a warm eulogium upon the perfection 
of his canine favorite, assured his companion that he would, upon receiv- 
ing the order, return and fetch any article he should leave behind, from 
any distance. To confirm this assertion, a marked shilling was put under 
a large square stone by the side of the road, being first shown to the 
dog. The gentlemen then rode for three miles, when the dog received 



* Jesse's "Anecdotes of Dogs." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 99 

"So scented the grim feature, and upturned 
His nostrils wide into the murkie air, 
Sagacious of his quarry from so far." — Milton. 



a signal from his master to return for the shilling he had seen put under 
the stone. The dog turned back; the gentlemen rode on ana % reached 
home, but to their surprise and disappointment the hitherto faithful mes- 
senger did not return during the day. It afterwards appeared that he 
had gone to the place where the shilling was deposited, but the stone 
being too large for his strength to remove, he had stayed howling at 
the place till two horsemen riding by, and attracted by his seeming 
distress, stopped to look at him, when one of them alighting, removed 
the stone, and seeing the shilling, put it into his pocket, not at the time 
conceiving it to be the object of the dog's search. The dog followed their 
horses for several miles, remained undisturbed in the room where they 
supped, followed the chambermaid into the bedchamber, and secreted him- 
self under one of the beds. The possessor of the shilling hung his trous- 
ers upon a nail by the bed-side; but when the travelers were both 
asleep, the dog took them in his mouth, and leaping out of the window, 
which was left open on account of the sultry heat, reached the house of 
his master at four o'clock in the morning, with the prize he had made 
free with, in the pocket of which were found a watch and money, that 
were returned upon being advertised, when the whole mystery was 
mutually unravelled to the admiration of all the parties.* 



MEMORY AND GRATITUDE OF A DOG. 

306. Mr. Youatt relates the following anecdote of a Newfoundland 
dog, who was greatly attached to him. He says, as it became inconvenient 
to him to keep the dog, he gave him to one who he knew would 
treat him kindly. Four years passed, and he had not seen him, when 
one day as he was walking towards Kingston, and had arrived at 
the brow of the hill where Jerry Abershaw's gibbet then stood, he 
met Carlo and his master. The dog recollected Mr. Youatt in a 
moment, and they made much of each other. His master, after a 
little chat, proceeded towards Wandsworth, and Carlo, as in duty 
bound, followed him. Mr. Youatt had not, however, got half-way down 
the hill, when the dog was again by his side, lowly but deeply growl- 
ing, and every hair bristling. On looking about he saw two ill-looking 
fellows making their way through the bushes which occupied the 
angular space between Rochampton and Wandsworth roads. Their 
intention was scarcely questionable, and, indeed, a week or two before, 
he had narrowly escaped from two miscreants like them. "I can 
scarcely say," proceeds Mr. Youatt, "what I felt, for presently one 
of the scoundrels emerged from the bushes, not twenty yards from 
me; he no sooner saw my companion, and heard his growling, the 
loudness and depth of which were fearfully increasing, than he retreated, 
and I saw no more of him or his associate. My gallant defender 
accompanied me to the direction post at the bottom of the hill, and 
there, with many a mutual and honest greeting, we parted, and he 
bounded away to overtake his rightful owner. We never met again; 
but I need not say that I often thought of him with admiration and 
gratitute." 

* Jesse's "Anecdotes of Dogs." 



100 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"At Bruin flies the slavering, snarling cur, 
But only fills his famished jaws with fur," — Falconer. 



A DOG CONSTABLE. 

307. Mr. Tewes, who keeps a restaurant in Williams-street, New 
York, has a large Newfoundland dog, a finer specimen of this kind 
than is ordinarily met with. Among his other wonderful marks of intel- 
ligence, we witnessed this a day or two ago. A gentleman entered 
the restaurant holding by a cord a dog which served as watch on 
board a ship. While in the place, the gentleman supposed the dog was 
safe, released his hold upon the string. The door was opened while 
the parties were in conversation, and the dog made his escape. Mr. 
Tewes said to his Newfoundland, "Go bring him back, Sir." The dog 
obeyed the mandate, and within a block or two overtook the fugitive. 
He first proceeded to give the object of his charge a slight reprimand 
for his delinquency by means of a smart shake or two, and then took 
the rope in his mouth to lead the dog back to his master. Some 
holding back was manifested, the string was dropped, and another shak- 
ing administered. Finally, by alternate chatisements and pullings at the 
cord, the runaway dog was brought into the restaurant, and the New- 
foundland, with a sly wink to his master, seemed to say, "There he is." 
The scene was witnessed by many, and created no little excitement. 
— New York Paper, 



A NEWFOUNDLAND'S REVENGE. 

308. A cousin of the Author of this work was a timber merchant 
in a sea-port town of England. He had two remarkably fine dogs that 
frequently afforded striking evidences of sagacity. "Hector" and "Wal- 
lace" had often, in quitting the timber-yard, to pass through a narrow 
lane which ascended a hill leading from the sea. In this lane lived an 
old woman, who kept a snappish little cur, that always ran out and 
barked at the Newfoundlands. Of this they took jio notice, or only 
answered the insolence of the cur by a dignified growl. At last the 
little culprit, emboldened by the forbearance of the Newfoundlands, 
snapped at the hind leg of one of them and bit it severely. Hector, 
the dog who was bitten, turned round, and, seizing the cur by the 
neck, carried him leisurely down to the sea-side, plunged in, and swam 
with him to what is called "boat's moorings" — about a hundred yards 
or more from the shore. There he let the unhappy cur go, and as he 
attempted to swim ashore, Hector every now and then struck him with 
his paw. The cur was drowned; the Newfoundland brought his body 
ashore and laid it out upon the beach — a solemn warning to all curs 
against offending the dignity of the Newfoundland. Mr. Youatt tells 
a similar story, but in this latter instance capital punishment was not 
inflicted, a severe ducking having been considered a sufficient penalty. 



CLEMENCY OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND. 

309. An instance of a somewhat different character is related by 
Mr. Partington. While the Government harbor or pier at Donaghadee, 
Ireland, was building, a battle took place between two powerful dogs. 
One was a Newfoundland, the other a mastiff. They had a prolonged 
fight upon the pier, from the point of which they both fell into the 
sea; and as the pier was long and steep, they had no means of escape 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 101 

"Whereunto I can none otherwise answere, but that he who will throw 

a stone at every dog which barketh, hath need of a 

great satchel or pocket." — Gascoigne. 



but by swimming a considerable distance. Each began to make for the 
land as best he could. The Newfoundland, being an excellent swimmer, 
very speedily gained the shore, on which he stood shaking himself, but 
at the same time watching the motions of his former antagonist, which, 
being a bad swimmer, was struggling exhausted in the water, and just 
about to sink. In dashed the Newfoundland, took the other gently by 
the collar, kept his head above water, and brought him safely on 
shore. There was a peculiar kind of recognition between the two 
animals, they had often fought before, but never did so afterwards; and 
upon the Newfoundland dog being accidentally killed by a stone-wagon 
on the railway passing over him, the mastiff languished and lamented 
for a considerable time. 

A CUR PERFORMS THE PART OF A DETECTIVE. 

310. Mr. Youatt tells the following anecdote, vouching for its 
truth: A young man, an acquaintance of the coachman, was walking, as 
he had often done, in Lord Fife's stables at Banff. Taking an oppor- 
tunity, when the servants were not regarding him, he put a bridle into 
his pocket. A highland cur that was generally about the stable saw 
him, and immediately began to bark; and, when he got to the stable 
door, would not let him pass, but bit him on the leg, in order to 
prevent him. As the servants had never seen the dog act thus before, 
and the same young man had been often with them, they could not 
imagine what had been the reason of the dog's conduct. However, 
when they saw the end of a valuable bridle peeping out of the young 
man's pocket, they were able to account for it; and, on his giving it 
up, the dog left the stable-door, where he had stood, and allowed him 
to pass. 

DOG PHILANTHROPISTS. 

311. Upon Mount St. Bernard, and near one of the most dangerous 
mountain passes, is a convent, in which is preserved a breed of large 
dogs, trained to search for the benighted and frozen wanderer. Every 
night, and particularly when the wind blows tempestuously, some of 
these dogs are sent out. They traverse every path about the mountains, 
and their scent is so exquisite that they can discover the traveler, 
although he may lie many feet deep in the snow. Having found him, 
they set to work and endeavor to scrape away the snow, uttering a 
deep bark that reverberates from rock to rock, and tells those who 
are watching in the convent that some poor wretch is in peril. Gen- 
erally, a little flask of spirits is tied round the neck of the animal, by 
drinking which the benighted traveler may recruit his strength until 
more effectual rescue arrives. The monks hasten in the direction of 
the sound, and often succeed in rekindling the vital spark before it 
is quite extinguished. Very many travelers have been thus rescued from 
death by these benevolent men and their intelligent and interesting quad- 
ruped servants. 

One of these Berardine dogs, named Barry, had a medal tied around 
his neck as a badge of honorable distinction, for he had saved the 
lives of forty persons. He at length died nobly in his vocation. A 
Piedmontese courier arrived at St. Bernard on a very stormy day, labor- 
ing to make his way to the little village of St. Pierre, in the valley 
beneath the mountain, where his wife and children lived. It was in 
vain that the monks attempted to check his resolution to reach his 
family. They at last gave him two guides, each of whom was accom- 



102 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Behold yon mountain's hoary height, 

Made higher with new mounts of snow; 
Again behold the winter's weight 

Oppress the laboring woods below." — Dryden. 



panied by a dog, one of which was the remarkable creature whose serv- 
ices had been so valuable. Descending from the convent, they were 
overwhelmed by two avalanches or heaps of falling snow, and the 
same destruction awaited the family of the poor courier, who were 
traveling up the mountain in the hope of obtaining some news of the 
husband and father.* 

312. Why is the jackd called "the lions provider*? 

Because, when jackals hunt their prey, they make hide- 
ous noises. The lion, knowing that these sounds are signs 
that the jackals are on the hunt, prowls about in their 
wake, and when they have killed an animal, he puts them 
to flight, and feeds upon the carcase. The jackals keep 
aloof until the lion has satisfied his hunger, and then they 
return and devour the fragments that may remain. 

313. The tiger, as well as the lion, follows the track of the jackal, 
and robs it of prey. The idea that the jackal is instinctively "the 
lion's provider" is one of the ingenious fictions that gather around 
every imperfect history. 

314. Why has the Nubian ferret valves to its ears? 

Because it burrows in sandy ground; the peculiar struc- 
ture of its ears is therefore adapted to preserve those most 
important organs. 



315. The ferret has unusually large ears, which renders it more 

than ordinarily liable to in- 
convenience while burrowing in 
sandy ground. The valve of 
the ear, as it has been termed, 
consists of a plait or fold, which 
shows itself externally at the 
bottom. The interior borders 
of the ears are covered with 
thick white hair, but the mid- 
dle part is bare, and of a pink 
or rose color. The auditory 
cells of the ferret are larger 
than those of the common fox, 
though the former is two-thirds 
less than the fox in size. It 
is probable that the ferret hears much more acutely than most quad- 
rupeds. 




♦ "Youatt on the Dog." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



103 



"Out, out, hyena; these thy wonted arts, 
And ^rts of every woman false like thee; 
To break all faith, all vows, deceive, betray, 
Then as repentant to submit." — Milton. 



316. Why are hyenas denominated "scavengers' ? 

Because they are so vora- 
cious that they will feed 
upon putrefying substances. 
, They therefore clear away 
putrid carcases which in a 
hot climate would produce 
dangerous consequences to 
mankind. 



317. As carrion feeders, tfiey 
seem destined to fill up an im- 
portant station in the economy of 
nature, by clearing the earth of 
the decaying carcases of beasts, 
whose remains might otherwise infect the air with pestilential effluvia. 
Their numbers is commensurate to the importance of their office; although 
solitary animals in general, they will sometimes assemble in troops and 
follow the movements of an army, in order to feast on the bodies of 
those who perish on the battle-field. It is asserted, and is not at all 
impossible, that they tear newly-buried bodies out of the graves. 

Mr. Bruce, the Abyssinian traveler, thus speaks of them : — "I do 
not think there is any one that has hitherto written of this animal who 
ever saw the thousandth part of them that I have. They were a plague 
in Abyssinia in every situation, both in the city and in the field, and, 
I think, surpassed the sheep in number. Gondar was full of them from 
the time it turned dark till the dawn of day, seeking the different pieces 
of slaughtered carcases which this cruel and unclean people expose in 
the streets without burial, and who firmly believe that these animals are 
Falasha from the neighboring mountains, transformed by magic, and come 
down to eat human flesh in the dark in safety." 




318. The spotted hyena is the most common species 
in the Cape of Good Hope; and although its presence 
requires caution on the part of the shepherds in regard 
to their cattle, yet it is a very valuable animal scavenger, 
as it is well known to come nightly to Cape Town and 
clear away the offal, bones, etc., which are thrown out in 
large quantities; and Spurrman says that the dogs are 
so well accustomed to it that they feed side by side without 
molestation, and the hyena is rarely known to do mischief 
when thus satiated. 




104 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Ladv. I would descend to kiss your hand, 
But that 'tis gloved, and civet makes me sick." — Massinger. 

319. Why is the civet commonly called the "civet 
cat"? 

Merely from some slight 
resemblance in the fur of the 
body, and the form of the 
tail; and from their habit of 
catching mice. The name 
cat is, in all other respects, 
inapplicable. They are great 
destroyers of eggs, are ex- 
pert in catching birds, and 
some of them occasionally 
pursue their prey by coursing. They frequent the banks of 
streams, the woodlands, or open glades, preying upon the 
smaller reptiles and the eggs of the larger in the first of 
those places, on birds and small quadrupeds in the second, 
and on the smaller lizards in the third. 

320. The perfume called civet is produced from an orifice under the 
anus in both sexes, secreted by peculiar glands. The persons who keep 
them are said to procure the civet by scraping the inside of their legs 
twice a week with an iron spatula, getting about a drachm each time; 
but it is seldom sold pure, being mixed with suet or oil to make it 
more weighty. The males yield the most, especially when they are irri- 
tated. The inhabit India, the Philippine Isles, Guinea, Africa, and Mad- 
agascar. 

321. Why is the leopard so called? 

The name is composed of two words, leo (lion), and 
par dus (panther) , and has a fabulous application: the 
fable being that the leopard was a mule or hybrid between 
these two species, partaking of the fabled generosity of 
the one, and the savage disposition of the other. 

322. What is the distinction between the panther and 
the leopard? 

The only difference between them are in the size and 
marking, and in the more active and playful disposition 
which seems to be connected with smallness of size in this 
genus of animals. It is possible that they are only varieties 
of the same original species. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 105 

"Some say a sea-maid spawned her." — Shakspere. 

■ 

323. Why is the ocelet so called? 

From the Latin ocellus, a small eye; it refers to the 
animal being spotted with small marks, or eyes. 

324. Why are seals classed among carnivorous "quad- 
rupeds" ? 

Because they are flesh eaters, possess carnivorous teeth, 




and in their skeletons the four extremities that distinguish 
quadrupeds are represented in the fin-like members. 



325. The principles pursued in the classification of animals may be 
thus familiarized: — Seals belong to the first great division of the animal 
kingdom, Vertebrata, because they possess a true back-bone formed of 
vertebrae (from verto, to turn). They belong to the class Mammalia 
(from mamma, the breast), because they have teats and suckle their young. 
They belong to the sub-order Carnivora (from caro, flesh, and voro, to 
eat), because they are flesh-eaters, and possess carnivorous teeth. They 
are of the family Phocidae (from a Greek word meaning a sea-calf), 
because of their fancied resemblance to a calf, and of their marine habits; 
they are made the type of numerous animals that resemble them; and they 
are ranked with Quadrupeds (from quadra, four, and ped, foot), because 
in their skeletons the four lower extremities , that distinguish quadrupeds 
are well defined. 

The doe. as another example, belongs to the Vertebrated division, 
as the sea dog; and for the same reasons, it belongs also to the class 
Mammalia, and the suborder Carnivora. But here the resemblance ceases, 
and the dog enters the order Digitigrades (from digita, a finger or toe, 
and gradioe, to walk), because it walks principally on it's toes; and to the 
genus Canis, the Latin name for a dog, on account of certain peculiarities 
of the teeth. 



106 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Proteus, thy song to heare, 
Seas list'ning stand, and windes to whistle fear; 
The lively dolphins dance, and bristly seales give eare." — Fletcher. 

326. Why are seals found in greatest numbers in 
estuaries and straits? 

Because the fishes upon which they feed are dispersed 
in the open sea, but congregate in greater numbers in the 
currents of narrow places. 

327. In some districts seals are very numerous. In the Caspian 
Sea, for instance, and in the Isle of Juan Fernandez. "Here," says 
Captain Dampier, "are always thousands, I might say possibly millions 
of them, either sitting on the crags, or going and coming with the sea 
round the island, which is covered with them (as they lie at the top of 
the water playing and sunning themselves) for a mile or two from the 
shore. They produce in the autumn two young ones, which for some 
time are white and woolly, and are suckled for six or seven weeks, after 
which they take to the sea; and when the dams come out of the sea they 
bleat like sheep for their young, and though they pass through hundreds 
before they reach their own, will not permit any of them to suck." 

328. Why do Greenland seal-hunters place themselves 
by holes in the ice? 

Because the seals being obliged to breathe air make 
for themselves holes in the ice, that they may rise for this 
purpose. The hunter, therefore, knows when he sees a 
hole that seals are about, and that some of them must 
soon come up to breathe. 

329. Another stratagem employed in the capture of seals is as fol- 
lows: — In the Gulf of Bothnia, when spring is approaching, arid the ice 
is forced from the shores by the rivers emptying themselves into the 
sea, the seals are often found upon the larger masses; and in order to 
obtain them, ihe hunters set off in a boat. Having taken the precaution 
to whiten the boat with lime, and put on white dresses to render them- 
selves less suspected, they go in search of their prey, and continue rowing 
about from one block of ice to another, destroying many seals. 

330. Why are the nostrils of seals surrounded with 
long bristly hairs? 

These hairs, or whiskers, are instruments of touch, and 
serve a similar purpose to the seal in its submarine excur- 
sions, as do those of lions, tigers, and cats, in forests and 
jungles. No doubt these instruments are exceedingly use- 
ful in exploring the crevices and irregular surfaces of ice- 
bergs, beneath the water, where fishes may sometimes take 
shelter and conceal themselves. 

331. In some of the species these hairs are jointed, and formed in 
a manner resembling the antenna; (feelers) of beetles. They have their 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 107 

"These seales be hardly killed, unlesse a roan dash out their brafnes. 

In their sleepe they seem to lowe or bleat, and thereupon 

they be called sea-calves.'* — Holland. 



roots in a sort of cylindrical capsule, of horny consistency at the bottom, 
and meet there with some small vessels connected with the muscles, and 
also with a fine membrane which lines the whole of the internal surface. 
These bulbous roots of the bristles, especially in the fine membrane with 
which they are lined, are closely connected with many ramifications of 
nerves. 

332. Why are the nostrils of seals made to close hab- 
itually ? 

Because, as the amphibious habits of the seal require 
the nostrils to be sometimes open and at other times closed, 
an effort of the animal must be required to produce one or 
other of these ends. The natural state of the nostrils is 
to remain closed, and an effort is required to open them 
when the seal reaches the air. 

The wisdom of this provision is evident: the animal 
hunts its prey beneath the water, and its nostrils being 
closed by their own exquisite machinery, the seal has no 
care concerning them while capturing its food. But when 
the capture is completed, and the animal has no more effort 
to make for that purpose, it returns to the air, and bestows 
an effort upon the necessity for breathing. 

333. Why are the eyes of seals very fully and pecu- 
liarly developed? 

Because it is by sight principally that they pursue their 
prey. Their nostrils are necessarily closed when under 
water, so that they probably have no sense of smell in that 
situation. Their ears are also small, and become con- 
tracted under water; the sense of sight is therefore their 
chief guide. 

334. The eye of the seal is fitted for a double action, for seeing either 
in the water or the air. There is no eye which can be said to have, upon 
the whole, to perform these offices so equally. They have to use their 
eyes deep in the water, and when there is very little light, or indeed 
none, the water being sometimes frozen over, and a deep stratum of snow 
lying upon the ice. The eyes are placed very near to each other, thus 
indicating that they follow their prey from a forward view. The schler- 
otic coat is composed of a thick, hard, and firm memBrane, by which 
strength is given to the eye under the pressure of water; and there is a 
provision for adjusting the foucus of sight to the dissimilar conditions of 
seeing in air and in fluid. While, to modify the change, the cornea of 
the eye is flat, there being less difference of light from a flat cornea than 
from a convex one of the same surface. 



108 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"With snow, frost, hail, and sleet, and found stern winter strong, 
With mighty isles of ice, and monsters huge and strong." — Drayton. 



335. Why has the walrus large tusks descending from 
its upper jaw? 

These tusks consist of an enlargement of the canine 
teeth, which in the carnivorous tribes are chiefly employed 
to capture and kill the prey upon which they subsist. 

They are thus enlarged in the walrus to enable the 
animal to mow down, or to throw aside, the great fields 
of sea-weeds among which it finds crustaceous and mollus- 
cous animals, such as lobsters, crabs, shell-fish, etc., upon 
which it feeds. 

They are also useful to enable the animal, the body of 
which is cumbrous and heavy, to clamber over the blocks 
of ice, among which it lives. This it accomplishes by fix- 
ing its tusks in the ice, using them as a lever to assist its 
movements. They enable the animal to raise itself out 
of the water, by holding on upon the rock or iceberg, just 
as the parrot steadies himself by its bill. The tusks are 
also used as weapons of defense. 

ORDER IV. MARSUPIALIA. 

336. Why are kanguroos, opossums, etc., included in 

the order Marsupialia? 

Because they are distin- 
guished by a pouch-like ap- 
pendage on the under-part of 
the females, which pouch is 
supported by two peculiar 
bones called Marsupial — from 
the Latin word Marsupium, 
meaning a purse or pouch. 




337. Why are these ani- 
mals provided with pouches? 

Because their young are 
born in a very helpless state. 
They are far more minute and 
formless than the young of any 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 109 

"That natural affection, so connatural to all or most creatures toward 
their young, what an admirable, noble principle it is, im- 
planted in them by a wise Creator!" — Derham. 

other of the mammalia, not excepting those which come 
into the world blind and naked. The pouch answers as a 
description of second womb, in which the young animals 
are brought to maturity. 

338. The young of all the animals of this order are remarkable for 
their imperfect development at the time of their birth. Even in the 
species without pouches (for some have a mere fold of the skin, scarcely 
visible) the young hang under the belly of the mother for a certain time; 
then they mount on her back, and twist their tails round hers to fix 
themselves. The young of the kaola, which has no tail, fixes itself on 
the parent's back, and fastens there with its hands. It is remarkable 
that, in the unpregnant animal, the pouch is closed, being glued, as it 
were, to the body of the parent by a peculiar secretion. As the pregnancy 
advances, this secretion becomes absorbed, and the folds of the pouch are 
set free, so that just at the time when the young within the body of the 
animal are prepared to leave it, the pouch or nursery on the outside is 
fitted to receive them.* 

339. Why are the young of these animals born in such 
a helpless condition? 

Because by far the greater number of the marsupial 
animals are either leapers or climbers; and this peculiar 
arrangement of the organs of gestation is evidently to 
enable the loins to have more powerful action than they 
could have if the body of the animal were encumbered 
with full-grown young. 

340. It has not hitherto been noticed bv naturalists (the Author 
believes) that the peculiar gestation of the marsupialia forms an inter- 
mediate design between the complete gestation of mammalia and the egg- 
laying capacity of birds. To animals of flight, bearing their young, apart 
from any consideration of the number of the offspring, must be a serious 
impediment; they are, therefore, endowed with the power of excluding 
the ova and maturing their young apart from their own bodies. To animals 
that are terrestrial, and endowed with leaping powers, the encumbered 
womb must prove almost as great an impediment as to creatures of 
the air. The gestation, therefore, is imperfect, and is completed after 
the young has passed from the womb. It is also worthy of remark 
that as birds lay from two to fifteen or eighteen eggs, marsupial 
animals bear from one to twelve young ones. 

The pouch of the opossum is thus described by M. D'Argaza: — 
"The female has the whole length of the belly cleft or slit, and appear- 
ing like a person's waistcoat buttoned only at the top and bottom. 
This cavity the animal has the power of firmly closing. Within it are 
thirteen teats, extremely small, one in the center and the rest ranged 

* Cuvier's "Regne Animal." 



10 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"The trees, devouring caterpillars bare: 
Parched was the grass, and blighted was the corn.'* — Dryden. 



round it." The same authority speaks of one which he saw that had 
thirteen young ones. They had ceased to suck, and the pouch, since 
they were so much grown, was not large enough to contain them, but 
the mother carried them about fixed to her tail, legs, and body. 

The structure of these animals agrees with the contingencies under 
which they exist. They are subjected to considerable hardships, aris- 
ing from the alternate parching and flooding of the countries in which 
they abound — countries which are not adapted for the common mam- 
malia in a state of nature — and accordingly we find that in New Holland, 
which may be considered the headquarters of marsupial animals, there 
are no native placental mammalia, and such are not very common in 
the other localities of these animals. New Holland, New Guinea, some 
of the other Islands of the Archipelago, South America, and the warmer 
part of North America, in the case of a single species only, are the 
localities of these animals, and it is not a little remarkable that not 
one of them has been hitherto found in Africa, though they occur on 
both sides of it.* 

341. Why has the kangaroo such powerful posterior 
organs? 

Because the hind feet 
and the tail are employed 
as leaping organs, and also 
as weapons of defense. The 
leap is of very great length, 
and is accomplished by the 
action of the tail, almost 
as much as by the legs. 

By the pliability of its 
spine and the flexibility of 
its posterior members, the 
animal can place itself pre- 
paratory to a bound so that, 
the lower bones of the leg 
being horizontal, the two 
superior bones shall be inclined to them at something less 
than a right angle, as shown in figures 1 and 2, repre- 
senting the profile and the skeleton of the kanguroo; by 
which it will be seen how greatly the structure of the ani- 
mal favors its principle of locomotion. 




* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



Ill 



"And on the playn of these valleys there were merualouse, great 
marshes, and dangerous passages." — Froissart. 




342. These proportions are reversed in quadrupeds of slow loco- 
motive powers, of which the giraffe is one of the most remarkable 
examples. In this animal a great proportionate length is given to its 
fore-legs; so that, notwithstanding the length of its neck, it would 
be incapable of taking its food from the surface upon which it stands. 
Nature has, however, beneficially adapted the wants of the animal to 
its structure; and, while its head is elevated to a height of twenty 
feet above the ground, nourishment situated at a corresponding eleva- 
tion is supplied in the foliage of the trees. 

343. Why is the bounding movement of the fyanguroo 
admirably adapted to the localities they inhabit? 

Because kanguroos inhabit a country where there are 
enormous tufts of the coarsest grass, growing on swamps 
or marshy ground, several feet in height, and at a con- 
siderable distance from each other; or else -they frequent 
rocky or bushy ground. By means of the bound which 
they are enabled to execute they can clear from twelve to 
twenty feet in length and several feet in height, from one 
tuft of grass, or from one rock or bush, to another, and 
thus escape from the pursuers. 



344. In kanguroos which have been bred and domesticated in 
this country, the size and strength of the tail diminishes, and the 
animals more frequently use all four of their feet in running. This 
is a strong illustration of the care taken by a beneficent Providence of 



1 I 2 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

i 

"It was observed of this animal, that he leaped or bounded forward on 
two legs, instead of running upon four." — Capt, Cook. 



its creatures, in furnishing them with the means best adapted for their 
relative conditions and situations in the protection of themselves and 
diminishing those means when they become no longer of the same 
importance to them. 

345. Why are the k a ng ur oo 9 s * head and fore paws 
so small? 

Because this conformation of the body is peculiarly 
adapted to its leaping habits ; this form contributes to keep 
the body of the animal almost erect in the air, while the 
weight of the lower quarters brings it to the ground with 
precision, and in a natural position, prepared immediately 
to repeat the leap. 

346. Why does the long-tailed belidens seldom descend 
to the ground? 

Because its structure, and especially the enormous 
length of its tail, is ill adapted for terrestrial habits; but 
it sometimes descends for the purpose of passing to a tree 
too distant to be reached by a spring. 

The tops of trees are traversed by this animal with 
as much ease as the most level ground is by such as are 
destined for terra firma. If chased or forced to flight, it 
ascends to the highest branch, and performs the most enor- 
mous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree. It has a mem- 
brane at its sides, which extends and forms a description of 
parachute, and which enables it to proceed to a consider- 
able distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of 
the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from re- 
ceiving the shock which it would otherwise sustain. 

u^L't T his ** ne little animal ls common in all the bushes of New 
South Wales. In those vast forests, trees of one kind or another are 
perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of blossoms, 
upon which the little creature feeds; the flowers of the various kinds* of 
gums, some of which ,are of great! magnitude, are the principal favor- 
ltes.f 



* Commonly spelled "kangaroo," but more properly kanguroo. 
f Gould's "Mammals of Austria." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 13 

"By dremes, by chirking of dores, or craking of houses, by gnawing of 
rattes, and swiche like manner of wretchednesse." — Chaucer. 



ORDER V. RODENTIA. 

348. Why are the animals of this order named rodents? 
Because of the peculiar formation of their teeth, and 

their habit of gnawing — the Latin verb rodo meaning to 
gnaw. 

349. In the order Rodentia the front teeth cut with a sharp edge. 
We know that this is contrived in "the tool of the carpenter, and 
we know that he must from time to time apply his chisel to the grind- 
stone. The front teeth of the beaver, the porcupine, and the rat, are 
sharp, and yet not blunted by use; the bone of the tooth is the densest 
possible, consistent with the material ; but, were the whole tooth of 
the same material, it would be ground down uniformly, and the original 
form of the instrument would be lost. Accordingly, a different sub- 
stance, the enamel, which yields more slowly to friction than the bone, 
is, as it were, let in on the anterior surface of the tooth. The conse- 
quence is, that the enamel stands up sharp and exposed, so as to 
protect the bone of the tooth, and to give the surface which is worn 
down a certain shape, suited to act like nippers. The friction and 
the arrangement of the material of the tooth so far correspond, that 
the cutting form is preserved, however much the surface may be 
worn down. 

350. Why are the jaws of rodents remarkably light? 
Because strength in the jaws is not requisite, but rather 

lightness, because the action is continued gnawing, or rub- 
bing, and not powerful biting. This may be seen in the 
different ways in which a monkey and a squirrel go about 
to get at the kernel of a nut. The monkey takes it be- 
tween his strong jaws, and cracks it at once by one lusty 
gripe, while the squirrel nibbles away till it makes a hole 
in the nut. 

35 1 . Why do squirrels convey food to their mouths with 
two paws while monkeys generally use but one? 

Because their fore-arms have but little motion in the 
elbow joints, and their two bones are often united. The 
paw, therefore, cannot turn, but has merely a hinge motion 
in this particular joint. Many of them, however, have 
tolerably perfect clavicles, and others have imperfect ones, 
so that they can bring the paw to the mouth without any 
turning of the elbow; but, as they cannot turn up the sole 
of the paw, they cannot bring any substance to the mouth 
except by holding it between the two paws sideways.* 

* Partington's "Cyclopedia." 



1 1 4 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Coridon unto her brought, 
Or little sparrowes stolen from their nest, 
Or wanton squirrels in the woods farre sought." — Spenser. 

352. Why are squirrels grouped as the genus sciurus? 
The scientific name sciurus is derived from skia, a 

shade, and our a, a tail, and refers to the tail of some of 
the species covering the head, as with a shade. The com- 
mon name squirrel is merely a corruption of sciurus. 

353. Why are the hind legs of squirrels only a little 
shorter than the front ones? 

Because, although leaping animals, like the kanguroo, 
their style of running along the branches of trees requires 
that they should have nearly equal command and use of all 
their legs. In this may be seen the difference between 
them and the hares and jerboas on the one hand, and the 
tree apes, which have not the tails prehensile, on the 
other. The leaping animal has the hind legs long, and 
the muscular action of the body very much concentrated 
upon them. The climbing animal has the fore-legs long, 
and the concentration upon them. The squirrel holds an 
intermediate place; and this is the reason why we consider 
its motions on the ground more graceful than the leaping 
of the jerboa, and its motion in the tree more so than the 
climbing of the ape. Their motions are quite a study in 
animal mechanics; and, on account of the lightness, the 
gentleness, and the cleanliness of the animals, they are very 
pleasing objects. 

354. Why are the eyes of squirrels very fully devel- 
oped? 

Because they have to find their food, and also their 
footing — the latter very quickly — in the shade of thick leaves. 

355. Why are the tails of squirrels so large and bushy? 
The tails of these creatures are exceedingly well adapted, 

and indeed necessary, to their mode of life; they serve to 
balance the body while springing, and, acting as a kind of 
parachute, prevent those jerks and falls which the animal 
would otherwise be likely to receive. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 1 5 

"The morning came when neighbor Hodge, 
Climbed like a squirrel to his dray, 
And bore the worthless prize away." — Cowper. 

356. Why do squirrels lay up stores of provisions? 
Because in the winter nuts, acorns, beech-nuts, the 

seeds of pines, peas, beans, and other large seeds upon which 
they live, cannot be found. 

357. There does not appear to be much truth in the common say- 
ing, that squirrels are great planters of the oak, by the acorns which 
they bury in the ground and are afterwards unable to find out; for, 
when an animal has the instinct of hiding any substance as a supply 
of food, it has, as a matter of course, the instinct of finding it again; 
and that a squirrel should range the forest, burying acorn after acorn 
in places where they would be apt to germinate, is very incredible. 
The store is always placed in dry situations, where it can be pre- 
served from growing.* 

It was said of old that "squirrels also foresee a tempest coming, 
and where the wind will blow: for look in what corner the wind is 
like to take a stand; on that side they stop up the mouth of their 
holes, and make an overture on the other side against it." f 

358. Why are some of the members of this tribe called 
"flying squirrels"? 

Because the skin of their sides is capable of great 
extension, and being attached to both the anterior and 
posterior extremities, is capable of being spread out, and 
answering the purpose of a parachute. There is a bony 
appendage to the hind feet, which furnishes an additional 
support to this membrane, in the extended springs made by 
the animal from one tree to another. These flying squir- 
rels seem to differ physically in nothing from the squirrels, 
properly speaking, except in the flying apparatus, and the 
bony appendage which supports it. $ 

359. Why has the souslik § pouches in its cheeks? 
Because these pretty little rodents lay up for the winter 

seeds, acorns, nuts, etc., which they convey to their bur- 
rows. Having no other means of transporting them, their 
feet being all employed in their movements, and their teeth 
ill-adapted to holding nuts while the body is in motion, 
they are provided with little pockets or pouches in their 
cheeks, in which they carry their winter's store to their 
burrows. 

♦Partington's "Cyclopaedia." f Holland: "Plinie." 

% Cuvier's "Regne Animal." § Spermophilus citillus. 



1 6 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Valour's a mouse-trap, wit _ a gin, 
Which women oft are taken in." — Hudibras. 



360. Why does the dormouse * become fat during its 
period of hybernation, while other hibernating animals be- 
come thin? 

Because its hybernation is imperfect ; it occasionally 
wakes and eats of the store of food it has previously laid 
up. Thus feeding, and being wholly inactive, its fat in- 
creases. But in the case of animals that hybernate per- 
fectly, and do not eat, the fat of their bodies is con- 
sumed for the support of their organic functions. 

361. Why is a small number of mice beneficial in some 
houses? 

Because they are great eaters of the beetles which infest 
houses during the night. 

362. Why are rats beneficial in certain instances? 
Because they frequently make the sewers or drains their 

principal haunts, and by devouring putrefying substances con- 
tribute materially to cleanliness and health. 

363. As matters are at present, the drainage of London stains the 
water of the Thames; but when we take into consideration the count- 
less millions of brown rats which are supported in the sewers, and 
of which the greater part are produced, live, feed, and thrive there, 
without any other store for their support, we can readily understand 
what would be the case if it were not for them. Thus, whether these 
animals come under the name of rats or mice they are, under certain 
circumstances, highly useful, playing the part of scavengers for man 
in cases where he either cannot or will not play it for himself. Every 
animal, indeed, which follows man in all his migrations, and multiplies 
in proportion as his numbers multiply, is always useful to him. Most 
of these animals are, no doubt, annoying, and many of them are posi- 
tively offensive; but, in all cases where they are so, man will find 
that he himself is generally to blame. They come to consume that 
which is at variance with health and cleanliness; and if the latter is 
properly attended to, there is no place for them, t 

Rats are exceedingly clean animals; they invariably wash them- 
selves all over after eating, no matter what. The operation is per- 
formed in the same manner as the cat does— by licking the paws. When 
a rat eats, he, by means of his sharp front teeth, gnaws away a mouth- 
ful, which he deposits in a sort of pouch formed between his grinding- 
teeth and his cheeks. Then he ceases gnawing, and masticates his food, 

* Myoxus glis. t Partington's "Cyclopaedia. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 1 7 

"Our natures do pursue, 
Like rats that ravine down their proper bane, 
A thirsty evil, and when we drink, we die." — Shakspere. 



by moving his jaws incessantly and without pausing. They move ten 
times faster than the jaws of a rabbit. When a rat drinks, he laps up 
the fluid like a dog. A rat generally tastes his food with his tongue 
previous to eating it. When sleeping, the rat coils himself^ up into 
a ball, and places his nose down between his hind legs; his tail is 
curled uo round the outside of the body, no part of him projecting 
but his two delicate ears, which are beautifully adapted for catching 
the least sound. 

364. Why may black rats be most securely caught by 
means of a wire snare fixed on a beam or rafter? 

Because the black rat does not frequent low haunts, 
such as cellars, pigsties, etc. ; nor does he burrow and run 
into holes, but lives chiefly in the ceilings and wainscoats of 
houses, and under rafters and beams. The snare alluded 
to, therefore, favoring their peculiar habits, is better calcu- 
lated to secure them than any other contrivance. 

365. Why is the tail of the rat so long and perfectly 
formed? 

Because it performs an important part in the animal's 
progress, becoming a sort of hand by means of which he is 
enabled to crawl along the tops of railings and along narrow 
ledges of walls, balancing himself by it or entwining it 
round the projecting portions of the difficult passages along 
which his course lies. By means of it,- too, he is enabled to 
spring up heights otherwise inaccessible, using it on these 
occasions as a_ lever, or rather a projectile spring. 

366. Why does the disappearance of the black rat prove 
the greater solidity and cleanliness of our modern habitations ? 

Because the black rat was never much of a city rat, nor 
resorted to houses built of masonry, and roofed with tiles 
or slates. But it frequented thatched houses with boarded 
or plastered walls, and became numerous in dwellings where 
the rooms were uncleanly. They were, in fact, the scaven- 
gers of dirty recesses and floors, just as the brown rat is of 
sewers; and the extermination of the black rat is due to the 
absence of the conditions which once fostered it — not to its 
having been driven away by the brown rat. 



1 1 8 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"And 
Into 
And 
Some 


forth he goth, i 
the town, unto 
praied him that 
poison that he 


no longer would he 

a potecary, 
he him wolde sell 
might his ratouns 


tary, 
quell. 1 


" — Chaucer. 



367. Why is it said that rats always quit a falling 
house? 

The popular saying is founded upon the obvious fact 
that when houses become old and tottering, they are aban- 
doned by human beings, and then the rats finding no longer 
their usual subsistence, quit the tenement also. 

368. But the popular^ mind has thwarted this very palpable fact 
into a kind of superstition, believing that rats have the power of 
anticipating the sudden fall of a house, and quitting it some hours 
before. Granting that a rat were of all animals the most sensitive to 
coming changes, and that it felt in the very dawn of their existence, 
the fall of a house does not come within the class of occurrences of 
which the sensibility of the animal would give it early warning.* In 
like manner it is said that rats leave a sinking ship; they have been 
seen to do so by walking along the rope which fastened the ship 
to the shore, but they did this only when the water had absolutely 
forced them from every other place. 

369. Why is a person shifting from one party or from 
one cause to another said to be "ratting" ? 

This saying is founded on the previous notion of rats 
deserting falling houses and sinking ships. It implies that 
as the individual can no longer suit his own purposes, he 
deserts his former place or cause. Tergiversation of this 
kind, more especially when it consists in deserting one party 
in its weakness, and going over to the opposite one in its 
strength for the sake of personal advantage, is invariably 
called "ratting"; and it is held, and very properly held, to 
be the worst species of political crime of which a public 
man can be guilty, and characteristic of the very meanest 
cast of mind, and lowest depth of political corruption.* 

370. Why may we suppose that rats can communicate 
intelligence to each other when they find food? 

Because the depredations committed usually commence 
with one rat, which soon afterwards is joined by other com- 
panions, and in a few days large swarms frequently appear. 

I * Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



IT9 



"This purpose is sometimes carried on by a sort of migratory instinct, 
sometimes by the spirit of conquest; at one time avarice drives 
men from their homes, at another they are actu- 
ated by a thirst of knowledge." — Burke. 




.371. Why has the hamster such enormous cheek 
pouches? 

Hamsters are a genus of rodent animals, remarkable for 

the possession of cheek 
pouches, which in some 
of the species are of con- 
siderable size. The one 
figured in the illustra- 
tion * has pouches so 
large that they will hold 
a quarter of a pint. 
These pouches are use- 
ful as stores of food for 
the animal, which inhab- 
its the sandy districts of 
the North of Europe and Asia, Austria, Silesia, and many 
parts of Germany, Poland, etc., is liable to periods of 
deprivation from food, and also undergoes an imperfect 
winter hybernation. 

372. The quantity of grain which they consume is very great. On 
the approach of winter, the hamster retires into his subterranean abode, 
the entry of which he closes with great care; and thus, remaining 
tranquil and secure, feeds on his collected store till the frost becomes 
severe: he then falls into, a profound slumber. It will be seen that 
this hybernation differs from that in which the animals immediately 
fall asleep, and either continue torpid during the whole of the cold 
season, or awake occasionally to partake of food. There is a long 
underground preparation for the winter sleep, during which a con- 
siderable quantity of food is needed. Hence it is that the animal is 
provided with these ample pouches, which act as panniers for the 
conveyance of its winter food to the place into which it retires. The 
fur of the hamster is valuable; and the peasant who goes "a hamster 
hunting" obtains not only the skin of the animal, but his hoard, which 
amounts to as much as two bushels of grain to each magazine. 

373. Why do lemmings migrate from their settlements? 

Because they multiply so rapidly that they experience 
a deficiency of vegetable food. They therefore set off 
in large bodies in search of new grounds adapted to their 
habitations, and there they found new colonies. In this 



* Mus bar sarins. 




120 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"It is not iron bands, nor hundred eyes, 
Nor brazen walls, nor many wakeful skyes, 
That can withhold their wilfull wandering feet." — Spenser. 

* 

we see a more striking illustration of the instinct which 
prompts rats to quit an uninhabited house, and to abandon 
an unseaworthy ship. 

374. Lemmings are allied to the rat tribes. There ^ are m several 
species of them, varying in size and 
color, according to the regions they in- 
habit. They are found in Norway, Lap- 
land, Siberia, and the northern parts of 
America; those of Norway being nearly 
the size of the water-rat, and of a tawny 
color, variegated with black, {he sides 
of the head and the under parts being 
?Apr white; while those of Lapland and Si- 
* i f**iC'* sr ^Z^ ^^V^Sii^y beria are scarcely larger than a field- 

?ifc^^Sa**n«*£ •>&V^ / ' mouse, and much less distinctly marked. 

They subsist entirely on vegetable food; 
they form shallow burrows, in the summer time, under the ground, and 
in winter make long passages under the snow in search of food. Their 
hairy heads and short ears and tails admirably adapt them for the latter 
labor. Their migrations are not regularly periodical, but are under- 
taken at irregular epochs — upon an average about once in ten years. 

The inclination, or instinctive faculty, which induces them, with 
one consent, to assemble from a whole region, collect themselves into 
an army, and descend from the mountains into the neighboring plains 
in the form of a firm phalanx, moving on a straight line, resolutely 
surmounting every obstacle, and undismayed by every danger, cannot 
be contemplated without astonishment. All who have written upon the 
subject agree that they proceed in a direct course, so that the ground 
along which they have passed appears at a distance as if it had been 
plowed; the grass being devoured to the very roots in numerous 
stripes or parallel paths of one or two spans broad, and at the distance 
of some ells from each other. This army moves chiefly by night, or 
early in the morning, devouring the herbage as it passes in such a 
manner that the surface appears to have been burnt. No obstacles will 
materially alter their route; neither fires, nor deep ravines, torrents, 
marshes, nor lakes; they proceed obstinately in a right line, and hence 
it happens that many thousands perish in the waters, and are found 
dead by the shores. If a rick of hay or corn occurs in their passage, 
they eat through it ; but if rocks intervene which they cannot pa^ss, 
they go round, and then resume their former straight direction. If 
disturbed or pursued while swimming over a lake, and their phalanx is 
scattered by oars and poles, they will not recede, but keep swimming 
directly on, and get into regular order again. They have even been 
known to endeavor to board, or pass over a vessel. 

On the passage overland, if attacked by men they will raise them- 
selves up, uttering a kind of barking sound, and fly at the legs of their 
invaders; and will fasten so fiercely at the end of a stick as to suffer 
themselves to be swung about before they quit their hold* Sometimes 
an intense war breaks out in these armies during their march, when 
they fight desperately and destroy each other. 

On the march they are attacked by various enemies, and particu- 
larly by owls, hawks, and weasels, so that but a small proportion of 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



T21 



"Of beasts — the beaver plods his task, 
While the sleek tigers roll and bask, 
Nor yet the shades arouse." — Smart. 



their number survive the peril of their journey. In some instances they 
have been observed, after a lapse of time, to return to their native 
mountains. Sometimes the females have borne young during their migra- 
tion, and have been seen carefully carrying them on their backs. After 
crossing a stream, or an arm of the sea, upon landing on the opposite 
bank they halt to sun and dry themselves, and after feeding again 
proceed upon their journey. 

It was once believed that these animals fell from the clouds at 
particular seasons; and some persons positively affirmed that they had 
seen a lemming fall from the skies — a not improbable occurrence, when 
it is remembered that birds of prey follow these troops on their journey, 
and swooping down upon them, carry into the air as many as their 
talons can seize. One of these escaping/ and falling to the earth, would 
at once give rise to the above misconception. An eye witness once 
stood for two hours watching a multitude of lemmings passing by. 



375. Why have beavers remarkably broad and thin 

tails? 

Because they spend the 
greater part of their time 
in the water, and pursue a 
busy life by the side of 
streams, and in the small 
mounds or islands formed 
by meandering waters. 
To guide their movements 
in the variable eddies and 
currents which they have 
to meet, they require a 
powerful rudder; and this 
is furnished by their broad, flat, and scaly tails. 

376. The formation of their tails is the more remarkable, because, 
while their bodies are covered with fur so fine that it constitutes a 
valuable article of commerce, their flattened tails are not endowed with 
fur, but have scaly surfaces, which render their action upon the water 
most efficient. (See 377.) 

377. Why are the incisor teeth of beavers remarkably 
developed ? 

Because they require the branches and trunks of trees 
in the construction of their houses, and these natural imple- 
ments are necessary to assist them in felling the timber. 




122 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"I was surprised at all this civility, and knew not to what I might 

ascribe it, except to my bright beaver and shining scarf 

that were new that day."— The Tatler. 

These teeth are broad, flattened, and protected anteriorly 
by a layer of orange-colored enamel, the rest of the tooth 
being a comparatively soft substance, where a cutting chisel- 
like edge is obtained. 

378. Not only does the beaver use its teeth with wonderful in- 
stinct, but the method adopted in the application of these instruments 
is equally remarkable. It begins the business of felling by gnawing 
round the branch of the tree; but, in order to save its self a great deal 
of work, and to overcome an otherwise insuperable difficulty — for it is 
necessary that the branch should fall across the stream, that it may 
float with the current — the beaver operates mostly on one side, and 
that always on the right one, and gnaws nearly through that side, leav- 
ing the other almost untouched. The branches cut down are sometimes 
of considerable thickness, and the beavers select those which stand up 
the stream, from the place of their habitations, not those Below it, 
because, in the latter case, they could not haul them up against the 
current. 

The beaver presents one of the strongest instances of instinctive 
sagacity and industry which can be| met with in the animal creation. 
It is gragarious living in societies of two or three hundred, whose labors 
are employed for the general good, and their settlements are made in 
ponds so deep as not to allow of their being frozen to the bottom, 
and which have a stream of water running through them, or in rivers 
themselves. Having determined on the place in which to erect their 
habitations, the first business consists in forming a dam; and for this 
purpose they stop the stream in the most favorable place for their 
operations. The dam is raised by driving stakes of five or six feet 
length into the ground at different distances, interweaving them with 
branches of trees, and filling up the interstices with clay, stones, and 
sand, which they ram down very firmly with their tails; the foundation 
of the dam is ten or twelve feet thick, the top is not more than two or 
three feet broad, presenting a perpendicular face to the stream, whilst 
the slope is placed on the outside, where, as grass grows, the dam is 
rendered more solid. In this way they Build a dam not unfrequently 
a hundred feet in length. Within the embankment near the edge o\ 
the shore are built the houses, which are from ten to twenty-five in 
number; these are raised upon piles, and sometimes consist of two 
or three stories, for the convenience of change in case of floods. The 
houses are of a round or oval form, with a vaulted roof; the walls about 
two feet thick, formed of earth, stones, and sticks, but neatly plastered 
within, and to each are two entrances, one toward the water, and the 
other facing the land. Their heigth above the water is about eight 
feet. In one habitation reside from two to thirty beavers, each animal 
having its own bed of moss, and each family its own winter stock of 
provisions, consisting of the bark and small branches of trees, which 
are kept in the water and fetched within as required. 

"To effect these works," says Pennant, "a community of two or 
three hundred assembles; each bears his share of the labor; some fell, 
by gnawing with their teeth, trees of great size, to form the beams Of 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 123 

"His beaver brushed, his shoes and gown, 
Away he trudges into town." — Swift. 



piles, these are gnawed all round in as regular manner as a cutter cuts 
in felling a tree, bringing the bottom of the wood to a point; others roll 
the pieces along to the water, others dive and with their feet scrape 
holes, in order to place them in, while others exert their efforts to 
rear them in their proper places; another party is employed in collecting 
twigs to wattle the piles with; a third collecting earth, stones, and clay; 
a fourth is busied in beating and tempering the mortar; others in 
carrying; it on their broad tails to proper places, and with the same 
instrument run it between the piles, or plaster the inside of their 
houses. Whilst at work, one of the party acts as an overseer, and by 
striking his tail indicates which parts are weakest. A certain number 
of smart strokes with the tail is a signal given by the overseers for 
repairing to such or such places, either for mending any defects, or at the 
approach of any enemy; and the whole society attend. 

379. Why are the hind feet of the beaver far better 
adapted for swimming than the front ones? 

Because when making way through lakes and streams 
it has frequently to use the fore feet for purposes not con- 
nected with swimming, but to assist in holding, directing, 
or propelling the billets of wood, or such other matters as 
the animal may have gathered, either for building or for 
food. The beaver has the swimming power more highly 
developed in its hind feet than has any other quadruped. 

380. Why do beavers build their dams sometimes 
straight across the stream, and at other times in an oblique 
direction ? 

When the current is slow the dam is carried straight 
across; but if the current be rapid, the dam is carried in 
an oblique line. The dam straight across is the shortest 
possible, and, therefore, costs the least labor; but it is the 
one upon which an equal volume and velocity of water 
would act most powerfully; therefore it is used in those 
cases where the force of the current is least. The oblique 
dam requires more labor in its construction, because it must 
be longer for the same breadth of the river; but as the 
action of the water upon it diminishes in proportion to the 
obliquity with which the current meets it, it resists better 
than the straight dam, and its resistance increases with its 
obliquity; therefore it is used against the more rapid and 
powerful currents. 



124 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Make thy two eyes, like stars, start .from their spheres; 
Thy knotted and combined locks to part, 
And each particular hair to stand on end, 
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine.*' — Shakspere. 

381. Why are beaver hats commonly called "castors" ? 
Because they are made from the fur of the beaver, the 

animal, in zoological nomenclature, being called the castor 
fiber, from the Greek name castor, and the Latin fiber, be- 
cause it inhabits the edges of the water. 

382. Why has the coypou, though identical with the 
beaver in many of its habits, a dissimilar tail? 

It has already been explained that the broad flat tail 

of the beaver, as well as being 
used as a rudder, is employed 
by the animal in the con- 
struction of dams and houses. 
Now, the coypou differs from 
the beaver in this respect, that 
it never builds, but burrows; 
nor does it construct dams. 
For a burrowing animal, the 
broad flat tail would be not only of no utility, but a positive 
incumbrance, and hence the organ is modified to the uses of 
the creature. 

383. Why is the porcupine covered with such formid- 
able quills? 

As in the case of the hedge-hog, the spines of the porcu- 
pine are weapons of defense, the animal having the same 
power of rolling itself into the form of a ball. Why the 
spines of the hedge-hog should be so short, and those of the 
porcupine so long, may find explanation in the fact that 
the latter, being a native of Africa, India, and the Indian 
Islands, is exposed to the attacks of far more formidable 
enemies than such as the cat, the weasel, the ferret, and the 
martin, by which the hedge-hog is attacked. The porcu- 
pine is so called from porcus (a pig), and spinis (prickles 
or thorns). 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 125 

"Well — one at least is safe. Our shelter'd hare 
Has never heard the sanguinary yell 
Of cruel man exulting in her woes." — Cowper. 

384. Why do hares when pursued generally make for 
rising ground? 

Because the length of their hind legs, as compared with 
their front ones, gives them a great advantage in ascending 
an inclined surface. 

385. Why do hares run down hill in a zig-zag course? 
Because the length of their hind legs, which gives them 

an advantage over their pursuers in ascending a Rill, is 
a disadvantage to them when descending. They therefore 
modify the line of descent by making a series of diagonal 
runs. 

386. Hares are remarkable for their extreme timidity; But their 
inability to save themselves from the attacks of their enemies has been 
in some degree compensated by their endowments for speed. When 
they run, their motions consists of a series of leaps more or less ex- 
tended according to the speed with which they move. Indeed the 
animals of this genus make a near approach in their general form, their 
gait when walking, and their mode of life to the kanguroos. The length 
and strength of their hind legs very much exceeds that of their front; 
they are further assisted by the extreme flexibility of their spines, 
which enables them to bring the hind feet even before the front, and 
thereby throw the body forward with a much stronger and greater 
spring. To give an idea of the prodigious leaps they make, it may be 
here mentioned that a hare has been known to pass over a space of 
twenty-five feet at a single bound. This structure, though well adapted 
for moving on a level surface, and much more for going up a hill, is 
disadvantageous for descent; and, consequently, if a hare descended a 
steep place at speed, she may be noticed rolling over and over fre- 
quently, before she reaches the bottom.* 

387. Why is the hare unable to run well upon fallows 
and wet soils? 

Because hares are unprovided with the smooth elastic 
padding which covers the soles of the feet of dogs and 
other quadrupeds, they are hairy-footed, which renders them 
ill-adapted for speed upon wet and adhesive soils. When 
left to choose their own track, they always select a dry 
one for treading on; and it is plain that their hairy socks 
admirably adapt their feet to resist the ill effects of pressure 
from the rough surfaces they must pass over by this prefer- 
ence. 

* "Encyclopaedia Metropolitana." 



126 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The hare. 
Tho' timorus of heart, and hard beset 
By death in various forms, dark snares, and dogs, 
And more unpitying men, the garden seeks, 
Urg'd on by fearless want." — Thomson. 

388. Why is the hare, though more fleet than the fox, 
generally the soonest caught? 

Because when the hare is started, she frequently ex- 
hausts herself by her excessive efforts to immediately escape. 
The fox, on the contrary, less timid than the hare, breaks 
away only at a moderate speed, which gradually increases 
as he finds himself pressed by the hounds. 

389. Why is the hare generally lean, while rabbits are 
frequently fat? 

The habitual timidity of the hare, and its perpetual ap- 
prehension of danger, preserve it in a lean state ; but rabbits, 
having safe places of retreat in their burrows, are less influ- 
enced by fear, and are called upon for less exertion to 
escape from danger. It may also be observed that the 
leanness of the hare, which is caused by its timidity, is the 
condition of body best adapted for flight from danger. 

390. Of the great speed of which the hare is capable, some idea may 
be gathered from the following facts: — In February, 1800, a brace of 
greyhounds, in Lincolnshire, ran a hare from her seat to where she was 
killed, a distance, measuring straight, upwards of four miles, in twelve 
minutes. During the course there were a great number of turns, which 
very considerably increased the space gone over. The hare ran herself 
dead before the greyhounds touched her. 

391. Why is the cavity of the chest of the young hare 
larger than the contained lungs? 

The condition of the lungs of the hare are liable to 
extreme variation. When the animal sits upon its form 
in an inactive state for many hours, the lungs are com- 
paratively passive; but when chased, the lungs are in a 
continual state of violent expansion and contraction. This 
ultimately increases the size of the lungs, which, in the 
old hare, will be found to fill the entire cavity of the chest. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



127 



"You are the hare of whom the proverb goes, 
Whose valor plucks dead lions by the beard." — Shakspere. 

"The prowling fox, 
Whose nightly murders thin the bleating fold." — Dodsley. 




392. Why are the ears of hares unusually long, and 
capable of more varied motion than those of most other ani- 
mals ? 

This fact illustrates a 
principle in the great de- 
sign observable in nature, 
referring to many animals, 
but to the hare in partic- 
ular. 

The external ears of 
animals of flight are turned 
backwards to give notice of 
the approach of an enemy 
from behind, whence he 
may steal upon them un- 
seen; while the ears of 
beasts of prey, such as lions, 
tigers, wolves, foxes, etc., 
have their trumpet part 
standing forwards, to seize 
the sounds which are be- 
fore them; viz., the sounds of the animals which they pursue. 
The ears of the hare are long, and stand erect when 
the animal is listening. Upon other occasions, when con- 
cealment is necessary, they lie down close upon the animal's 
back. When being hunted, and well a-head of the hounds, 
the hare will frequently throw one ear forward and the 
other backward, that it may discriminate not only whence 
to fly but whither to go. 

393. The anatomy of the internal ear also favors its reception of 
sounds from every direction. The auditive canal is in part soft, and 
in part bony, so that the tube may be turned in the direction of the 
outer ear. In general the ears are naked, or very thinly covered with 
short hairs, and the membranes of which they are composed are so 
thin that they are nearly transparent. * 

In order to enable this creature to perceive the most distant 
approaches of danger, nature has provided it with these very long ears, 
which, like tubes applied to the auditory organs of deaf persons, con- 




128 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"What man art thou? quod he, 
Thou lokest as thou woldest find an hare, 
For ever on the ground I see thee stare." — Chaucer. 



vey to it such sounds as are remote; and the motions of the hare are 
directed acordingly. Its large prominent eyes being placed so far 
backward as to receive the rays of light on every side, it can almost see 
distinctly behind while it runs directly forward. The muscles of its 
body being strong, and unencumbered with fat, it has no superfluous 
burden of flesh to carry; and to assist it in escaping from its pursuers, 
the hinder legs are considerably longer than the fore, which adds to the 
swiftness of its motions. When the hare hears the hounds at a distance, 
it flies for some time from a natural impulse, till having gained some 
hill or rising ground, and left the dogs so far behind that their cries no 
longer reach its ears, it stops, rears on its hinder legs, and looks back 
for the purpose of satisfying itself whether its enemies are still in 
sight or not; but the dogs having once gained the scent, trace it with 
united and unerring skill; and the poor animal soon again receives 
indications of their approach. Sometimes, when hard hunted, it will 
start a fresh hare, and squat in the same form; at others, it will creep 
under the door of a sheep-cot, and conceal itself among the sheep; 
sometimes it will enter a hole like the rabbit; at others, it will ^preep 
up one side of a quickset hedge, and down the other; and it has been 
known to ascend the top of a cut edge and run a considerable way, by 
which stratagem it has effectually evaded the hounds. It is also not 
unusual for the hare to betake itself to furze bushes, and leap from one 
to another, whereby the dogs are frequently misled; and as it swims 
well, and takes the water readily, it will cross a river with the same 
intent, if it has the opportunity. It may be observed, however, that 
the first doubling which a hare makes generally affords a key to all 
its future attempts of that kind, the latter exactly resembling the 
former. The hare is a short-lived animal, and is supposed rarely to 
exceed the term of seven or eight years. Its voice, which is seldom 
heard but in the distress of sudden surprise, or when wounded, 're- 
sembles the sharp cry of an infant. Its enemies are numerous and pow- 
erful. Every species of the dog kind pursues it by instinct; the cat 
and the weasel tribes exercise all their arts to ensnare it; and birds 
of prey, snakes, adders, etc., drive it from its form, particularly during 
the summer season; these, with the more destructive pursuits ot man- 
kind, contribute to thin the number of these animals, which from their 
prolifio nature would otherwise multiply to an extravagant degree.* 

394. Why do rabbits burrow, while hares make forms 
upon the surface? 

The burrowing of the rabbit is an instinctive contriv- 
ance consequent upon its defective speed. The rabbit can- 
not outrun its enemies, therefore it obtains immunity from 
attack by contriving a retreat in the ground. 

Another distinction renders this difference of habit nec- 
essary: the eyes of young hares are open at birth, and the 
dam suckles them only for about twenty days, when they 
leave her and procure their own subsistence. Young rab- 

* "Maunder's Treasury Nat. History." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 129 

"Never mole, hare-lip, nor scarre, 
Nor make prodigous, such as are." — Shakspere. 

bits are born blind, are very scantily covered with hair, and 
for nearly six weeks the doe continues to suckle them. 

395. It is a curious circumstance that the individuals composing 
this genus present very great differences in their habits. Some, as 
the hare, are found throughout the day resting on one particular spot, 
frequently in a kind of arbor formed of the high rank grass occasion- 
ally scattered over fields; at other times in hedgerows, or against a 
clod oi earth, but never attempting to burrow; others, as the rabbit, 
are most expert miners, sinking long galleries, without any regular order, 
in which they rest during the day, and bring up their young; and it 
is said that they never forsake the burrow which they have once inhab- 
ited; whilst, again, others make nests and squat either amongst heaps of 
large, loose stones, or in the clefts of rocks, seeming to have a dispo- 
sition to live in holes, without taking the trouble of burrowing. It 
is a very curious fact with regard to rabbits, that if once domesticated, 
they lose this disposition to burrow, and the produce of tame rabbits 
do not attempt such a proceeding. Mr. Barrington accounts for this 
by supposing that they do not burrow because not previously taught 
by the old rabbits. This may be the reason, in some degree. We have 
all witnessed the efforts of an old cat to teach its kittens to catch 
mice; and, although kittens not so instructed still retain the instinct to 
seize their natural prey, doubtless those that are properly instructed 
become the best mousers. 

396. Why is a divided lip in the human being called 
a "hare-lip"? 

Because the upper lip of the hare is slit or divided on 
the mesial line; and from its resemblance to this, the divided 
lip, when it occurs in the human being, is so called. 

397. Why is it commonly said that persons of {lightly 
conduct are "mad as March hares'? 

Because in the month of March hares are character- 
ized by greater activity and boldness than at other times. 
It is their rutting season ; the male pursues the female by 
the sagacity of its nose, and when following the scent 
appears to lose its usual timidity and sagacity. The coun- 
try, too, is dry, and in the best state for the running of the 
hare; and the leverets of the last season have acquired 
strength and agility. 

398. Why is the hare so called? 

It is suggested that the name arises from the declara- 
tion of Pliny that the hare is the "hairiest creature of all 



I 30 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

''Thus gay, the hare with many friends, 
Twice seven long years the court attends; 
Who, under tales conveying truth, 
To virtue formed a princely youth." — Swift. 

others." It is not improbable that the noun is of the same 
origin as the verb to hare, and that the name was given to 
the animal because it is harried, or pursued by harriers. 

399. Why do hares leap to and fro before they jump 
upon their forms? 

Because their instinct tells them that their enemies pur- 
sue them by scent. Hares themselves pursue their kind by 
scent, and being practiced in the exercise of that faculty, 
must know that a leap from the ground breaks the trail. 
Hence, when they lay themselves up for the day, they do 
not run in a direct line to their seat, but work around it, 
and when near enough make a spring by which they reach 
their form. In like manner, when pursued they will some- 
times throw themselves up by springing, and then remain 
still on the spot upon which they alight; and rabbits do the 
same. 

400. The doublings of the hare, before she goes to form, thereby 
to dodge and deceive the dogs, is a notable instinct for an animal 
less famed for cunning than the fox and some others. The means 
of defense and escape provided by the Creator for various animals are 
worthy of consideration. Some are sufficiently guarded against all com- 
mon dangers by their natural clothing, by their armature of shells, or 
such like hard and impregnable covering of their body. Others, destitute 
of this guard, are armed, some with horns, some with sharp quills and 
prickels, some with claws, others with stings. Some can shift and 
change their colors, some can make their escape by the help of their 
wings, and others by the swiftness of their feet; some can screen 
themselves by diving beneath the waters, others by tinging and dis- 
ordering the waters can make their escape; some By their accurate 
sight, smell, or hearing, can foresee dangers; others by their natural 
craft can prevent or escape them; and some even by the power of their 
excrements can deter their enemies from pursuing them.* 

Nature appears to have gifted the hare with some singularly 
preservative properties, of which her diversified tintings offer a proof; 
these so harmoniously blend with the matters which surround her as 
to make her escape from all but the practised eye very common. It is 
not that she lies concealed by cover; on the contrary/ she frequently 
forms on the low side of a clod in a plowed field, and yet, although 
so situated her mass looks so shapeless that she is, by those not 
habituated to look for her, more frequently passed over than discovered. 
Her ears also are so mobile that she can take in sounds from every 

* Derham's "Physico Theology." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 131 

"Immortal maid ! 
I own thy presence, and confess thy aid; 
Not fear, thou know'st, withholds me from the plains, 
Nor sloth has seized me, but thy word restrains." — Pope. 



quarter; her eyes are never shut, and although she without doubt sleeps, 
yet her visual organs are so framed as never to be veiled, and her 
sleep is also so light as to instantaneously communicate through them 
and her ears the approach of danger. If discovered, her speed would 
in most cases save her from common foes; but she is assailed on one 
part by dogs artificially bred with superior scenting powers, or on the 
other with such as, though almost scentless, are fleet as the wind. 
— Poor puss! ! * 

401. Why are the eyes of hares never closed? 
Because they are unprovided with eye-lids. Instead 

thereof they have a thin membrane which covers the. eye 
when asleep, and probably, also, when at rest. This mem- 
brane (like that which will hereafter be described in con- 
nection with certain birds) folds like a curtain in the cor- 
ner of the eye, and by an instantaneous action flies back, 
when sight is required, and leaves the eye immediately and 
fully open for the exercise of sight. 

ORDER VI. — EDENTATA. 

402. Why is the sixth order of animals named Eden- 
tata? 

Because they are toothless; the name being derived 
from the Latin edentatus, deprived of teeth. 

Although this order includes animals which differ 
widely in their habits, they all agree in the absence of teeth 
from the front jaw; all resemble each other in the great 
claws which encompass the ends of their toes; and they are 
distinguished by remarkable slowness, or want of activity, 
arising from the peculiar organization of their limbs. 

403. Why is the au or sloth, so called? 

Because it utters a peculiarly plaintive note, of which 
the sound of the vowels ai is a close imitation. 

404. Why do sloths utter this sound upon the ap- 
proach of storms? 

Because storms refresh the foliage^ upon which they 
feed, and put the sloths in motion to seek their cool and 

* Blaine's "Rural Sports." 



1 32 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"For all he did was to deceive good knights, 
And draw them from pursuit of praise and fame, 
To slug in slonth and sensual delights, 
And end their daies with irrenowned shame." — Spenser. 

moistened meal. During the day they suspend themselves 
in a motionless state beneath the branches of trees ; but 
when the cooler night approaches, and the leaves are cov- 
ered with dew, they rouse and regale themselves. Their 
note is, therefore, an expression of joy, which is heightened 
on the approach of a storm. 

405. Why is the sloth, and some other animals, en- 
abled to exist throughout the "winter without food or motion? 

At the end of autumn, from the abundant supply of 
food which these animals are able to procure, they retire 
to their winter retreats loaded with fat. This serves as 
a reservoir of nourishment adequate to the supply of the 
small expenditure that takes place during their torpid state. 
On the return of spring, they are aroused from their leth- 
argy, the fat being generally greatly diminished. 

406. In animals thus circumstanced voluntary motion is altogether 
suspended, so also in the process of digestion; several of the secre- 

. tions are suppressed, as the saliva and gastric juice, etc., the senses 
are likewise sealed up, and the circulation is diminished. The hamster, 
in which the pulse beats 150 per minute in a state of activity, has 
it reduced to 15 in its torpid condition. The dormouse, whose pulse 
is so rapid as scarcely to be counted when in its ordinary state, has it 
reduced to the same low standard when torpid. Respiration is also 
affected in a remarkable degree, not only in the number, but in the 
fullnes and regularity of recurrence. Marmots in a state of health and 
activity, perform about 500 respirations in an hour, but in the torpid 
state these occur only fourteen times during the same period, and are 
performed at intervals of four or five minutes absolute rest; neither is 
the chest enlarged to any considerable extent. Sensibility is much 
diminished; parts of the limbs may be cut off without the animal show- 
ing any signs of feeling. 

407. Why, although the sloth is apparently ill pro- 
vided with the means of defense and of procuring its food, 
is it in reality well provided for these exigencies? 

Because, in the first place, their long shaggy hair de- 
fends them from the insects which in the climate they 
inhabit are so troublesome; and, in the next place, the 
texture of its coat is very peculiar, more resembling dry 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 133 

- i 

"Still, with your voice, the slothful soldiers raise, 
Urge, by thy father's fame, their future praise." — Pope's Homer. 

hay, or grass shrivelled and withered by the sun, than the 
hair of ordinary quadrupeds; and its appearance so much 
resembles that of the bark and moss of the branches on 
which it lives as to prevent the animal from being easily 
detected, except when moving. 

408. Why is it erroneous to consider the sloth an 
awkwardly-formed animal, and unfit for locomotion? 

Because the shortness of its hind legs, and the extraor- 
dinary length of the arms and claws, although they impede 
the progress of the animal upon level ground, are peculiarly 
calculated to assist it in climbing the branches of trees, 
where the sloth finds food, and rests secure from his enemies. 

409. If the sloth can with his claws reach the branch or rough 
bark of a tree then will his progress be rapid; he will climb hand 
over hand along the branches till they touch, thus getting from bough 
to bough, and from tree to tree; in the storm he is most alive; it 
is when the wind blows, and the trees stoop, and the branches wave, 
that he is most active. 

410. Why have sloths great difficulty in walking on 
the ground? 

This difficulty arises from the peculiar structure of their 
feet; their hind ones are much smaller and shorter than 
their fore feet, and they are articulated somewhat in the 
same way as those of the handed animals which are the 
most expert climbers. In consequence of this, the side of 
the hind foot and part of the leg come in contact with the 
ground, and the animal cannot walk but with the greatest 
difficulty. The toes, which are two on the fore feet of the 
one and three on those of the other, are united together so 
as to form one single piece, and have no division of the 
foot except the claws, which are long and crooked, and 
remain bent like hooks by the action of ligaments, except 
when the animal stretches them out by muscular exertion, 
which appears to be a slow and painful operation. 




1 34 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The first point of slouth I call 
Lachesse, and is the chief of all, 
And hath this property of kinde 
To Ieven everything behinde." — Gower. 



411. From this structure the 
sloth is entirely helpless on the 
ground; but among the branches of 
a tree, where it catches by the feet, 
and • suspends itself without the least 
exertion or fatigue, this animal is 
completely at home, and as beauti- 
fully adapted to its place in nature, 
as the fleetest creature which sports 
in the meadow, or bounds over the 
heath. The sloth is decidedly the 
best climber among mammals, though 
upon the ground it is the worst 
walker. 

412. How is the supply 
of blood in the legs. of climb- 
ing animals specially regulated for the purpose? 

In animals which are the best climbers and the worst 
walkers, the arteries which supply the limbs with blood 
are divided into a number of small branches, which branches 
are again united to form the principal artery of the limb. 
This structure renders the circulation in the limbs much 
slower than that in the body, and as both the energy and 
exhaustion of an animal, or part of an animal, are in pro- 
portion to the rapidity of the circulation, the legs of the 
sloth and animals of a similar character, though moved with 
extreme slowness, may be regarded as possessing greater 
power of endurance than any other organs among verte- 
brated animals. 

413. In what respect is the form of the sloth remark- 
ably adapted to the localities which it inhabits? 

Wherever the earth is green, there are browsing animals 
appointed to consume the pasturage or the foliage, and to 
aid the great scheme of nature in its successional changes. 

In the tropical forests, the green is not upon the surface 
of the ground, but upon the tops of trees; and the browsing 
animals destined to consume it, must have an inverted posi- 
tion to enable them to to make the foliage of the trees their 
pasture. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 35 

"So she him lefte, and did herself e betake 
Unto her boat again, with which she clefte 
The slouthjul wave of that great griesy lake." — Spenser. 

A pasture suspended in the air must have those which 
feed upon it suspended in the same element; and they can- 
not be placed above the leaves, because the latter afford 
no looting for an animal in size adequate to the con- 
sumption it is necessary to accomplish: they are, therefore, 
suspended beneath the foliage, and in this manner they are 
brought in closer connection with the branches, which alone 
could afford them support. 

414. In what respect are the habits of the sloth, as 
well as being adapted to its own wants, in accordance with 
those of external nature? 

The sloth inhabits the deep, extensive, and luxuriant 
forests of South America, in which the trees are of giant 
growth, always green, and so close that rarely a beam of 
the vertical sun reaches the earth; they extend over dis- 
tricts so wide, and so festooned and interlaced with twin- 
ing plants, that winds, which would level a single tree to 
the ground, barely agitate their tops, or disfigure a few on 
the sides of the openings. 

In order that there may be seeds, and successions of 
races in those luxuriant forests, it is necessary that there 
should be consumers of the superabundant foliage, which 
otherwise would completely exclude the sun and air, and the 
forest would perish of excess of its own exuberance, leaving 
the naked and carpetless earth to be converted, by the fervor 
of the tropical sun, into an arid waste, upon which no liv- 
ing thing could exist. 

If the forests were to be destroyed in this manner, or, 
indeed, in any way but one in which their place should be 
occupied by a close surface of vegetation, the rain would 
depart also, and the land would be put beyond the power 
of human skill and labor to bring it back to usefulness, 
either for himself, or for any other living creature. "Once 
a desert, always a desert" — until one of those mightier 
movements of nature, of which the records are written in 



1 36 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Weariness can snore upon flint, 
When resty sloth finds the down pillow hard." — Shakspere. 

< ... . . . 

the strata of the deepest mines and the loftiest mountains, 
break the rain to pieces, and mold and temper its elements 
anew. * 

415. Mr. Waterton, in his "Wanderings in South America," gives 
some interesting particulars of the sloth. He says: — "One day, as we 
were crossing the Essequibo, I saw a large two-toed sloth on the ground 
upon the bank; how he had got there, nobody could tell. The Indian 
said he had never surprised a sloth in such a position before; he would 
hardly have come there to drink, for both above and below the place, the 
branches of the trees touched the water, and afforded him an easy and 
safe access to it. Be this as it may, though the trees were not above 
twenty yards from him, he could not make his way through the sand in 
time enough to escape before we landed. As soon as we got up to 
him, he threw himself upon his back, and defended himself in gallant 
style with his fore-legs. 'Come, poor fellow,' said I to him, 'if thou 
hast got into a hobble today, thou shalt not suffer for it: I'll take no 
advantage of thee in misfortune; the forest is large enough both for thee 
and me to rove in: go thy ways up above, and enjoy thyself in these 
endless wilds; it is more than probable thou wilt never have another 
interview with man. So fare-thee-well.' 

"On saying this, I took up a long stick which was lying there, held 
it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him to a high and stately 
mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute was 
almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in a side direction, and 
caught hold of the branch of a neighboring tree: he then proceeded towards 
the heart of the forest. I stood looking on, lost in amazement at his 
singular mode of progress. I followed him with my eye till the inter- 
vening branches closed in betwixt us, and then I lost sight for ever 
of the two-toed sloth. I was going to add, that I never saw a sloth 
take to his heels in such earnest; but the expression will not do, for the 
sloth has no heels." 

Having captured another of these animals, he had a good opportunity 
of making some observations: — "The sloth was in my house with me for 
a day or two. Had I taken a description of him as he lay sprawling on 
the floor, I should have misled the world, and injured natural history. 
On the ground he appeared really a bungled composition, and faulty at 
all points; awkwardness and misery were depicted on his countenance; 
and when I made him advance he sighed as though in pain. Perhaps it 
was, that by seeing him out of his element, as it were, that the Count 
de Buffon, in his 'History of the Sloth,' asks the question, — 'Why should 
not some animals be created for misery, since, in the human species, the 
greatest number of individuals are devoted to pain from the moment of 
their existence?' Were the question put to me, I would answer — I can- 
not conceive that any of them are created for misery. That thousands 
live in misery there can be no doubt; but then misery has overtaken 
them in their path through life, and wherever man has come up with 
them, I should suppose they have seldom escaped from experiencing a 
certain proportion of misery. 

"After fully satisfying myself that it only leads the world into 
error to describe the sloth while he is on the ground, or in any place 
except in a tree, I carried the one I had in my possession to his native 
haunts. As soon as he came in contact with a branch all went right 
with him. I could see, as he climbed up into his own country that he 
was on the right road to happiness; and felt persuaded more than ever, 
that the world has hitherto erred in its conjectures concerning the sloth, 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. Y37 

"It is remarkable that man, who is endowed with reason, is born without 
armature, and is destitute of many powers which irrational crea- 
tures have in a much higher degree than he." — Derham. 



on account of naturalists not having given a description of him when 
he was in the only position in which he ought to have been described 
— namely, clinging to the branch of a tree." * 

416. Why is the armadillo so called? 
The name, which was given to these animals by the 
Spaniards, means "clad in armor," and refers to the 

singular covering with 
which nature has provided 
them. It consists of a trian- 
gular or oval plate on the 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ top of the head, a large 

buckler over the shoulders, 
and a similar buckler over 
the haunches, while between these solid portions there inter- 
venes a series of transverse bands or shelly zones, which 
accommodate this coat of mail to the various postures of the 
body ; the tail also is covered by a series of calcareous rings ; 
and the animal altogether exhibits a striking deviation from 
the usual structure and outward appearance of quadrupeds. 

41 7. What are the most striking indications in the form 
of the animal of adaptability to its mode of life? 

The stiffness given to the neck and to the whole spinal 
column by the armor, and the bearing of the processes of 
the vertebrae against that, evidently enables the armadillo to 
push forward into the earth, so as to keep itself advanced to 
the full action of the claws in burrowing downwards in an 
oblique manner, which it does with very great rapidity, so 
fast, indeed, as almost to elude pursuit; for as he gets the 
body buried, it takes so powerful a hold of the earth, that 
the tail may be pulled away, without bringing out the animal. 

In these cases it is probable that it holds on with the 
whole body, and not merely with the feet. While digging, 
the legs are not stretched, so that when it raises itself upon 
these, the body is brought into firm contact with the upper 

♦Waterton's "Wanderings," page 283. 



1 38 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

_^__ ; — „ 

"You might have seen them throng out of the town, 
Like ants when they do spoil the bing of come, 
For winter's dred, which they beare to their den." — Surrey. 

part of the burrow; and the armor holds like a screw By 
means of its transverse prominences. * 

There are other points of adaptability worthy of obser- 
vation. The head is sharp and wedge-like, the eyes are 
small, and, in some of the species, covered with a membrane 
which can be put in use while the animal is burrowing, and 
so covered and protected. 

418. How are the armadillos, being unprovided with 
extensile tongues, able to capture ants, upon which they 
partly subsist? 

As the structure of the tongues of armadillos is not so 
well calculated for the capture of ants as those of the true 
ant-eaters, they do not devour these insects in such numbers; 
but they are said to exterminate them more speedily and 
completely from places where they abound. They effect 
this by mining obliquely into the ant-hills in all directions, 
and especially by digging down to those places where the 
chrysalids of the young ants are collected. 

The holes which they make are also too deep and 
large to be easily filled up by the ants; and as they admit 
water to the very lowest inhabited part of the hill, the ants 
are either driven out, or drowned the first rain that falls. 

419. Why has the number of armadillos increased in 
the vicinity of colonies, while that of other wild animals 
has decreased? 

Because, as well as eating insects and roots, armadillos 
devour the carcases of animals. In the neighborhood of 
colonies a great many wild animals are killed for their 
skins, and the increase of the number of carcases thus 
promotes the increase of the number of armadillos, who 
act as scavengers to the fields of slaughter. 

* Partington's "Cyclopedia?' 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 39 

"Then as nede is, they weren nothing idel; 
Gnawing, and fast the armurers also, 
Like file and hammer, pricking to and fro." — Chaucer. 

420. Why do Indians ascertain the presence of arma- 
dillos in their burrows by observing the movements of mos- 
quitoes ? 

Because mosquitoes enter the holes of armadillos for 
the purpose of sucking their blood. When, therefore, the 
Indians see that a number of mosquitoes come out of a 
hole, they know that it is inhabited. 

421. As it often takes a considerable time to dig an armadillo out 
of his hole, it would be a long and laborious business to attack each 
hole indiscriminately without knowing whether the animal were there or 
not. To prevent disappointment the Indians carefully examine the mouth 
of the hole, and put a short stick down it. Now, if on introducing the 
stick a number of mosquitoes come out, the Indians know to a certainty 
that the armadillo is there; whenever there are no mosquitoes in the 
hole, there is no armadillo. The Indian having satisfied himself that the 
armadillo is there by the mosquitoes which come out, he immediately cuts 
a long and slender stick, and introduces it into the hole; he carefully 
observes the line the stick takes, and then sinks a pit in the sand to 
catch the end of it; this done, he puts it farther into the hole and digs 
another pit, and so on, till at last he comes up with the armadillo, which 
has been making itself a passage in the sand till it had exhausted all 
its strength through pure exertion. I have been sometimes (says Mr. 
Westerton) three-quarters of a day in digging out one armadillo, and 
obliged to sink half-a-dozen pits, seven feet deep, before I got up to 
it. The Indians and negroes are very fond of the flesh, but I consider it 
strong and rank. 

422. Why has the American ant-eater such a long 
.snout and protrusive tongue? 

Because, like the armadillo, it devours ants, but has 
not the power of burrowing like that animal. The long 
tongue, which is covered with a viscid fluid, therefore 
enables the ant-eater to capture the ants before they have 
time to run into the ground, after being surprised. 

The way in which the ant-eater proceeds is to approach 
the ant-hill, and with its large hooked claws to destroy a 
portion of it. By this partial spoliation of the building 
thousands of ants are exposed, as they run to and fro in 
a state of alarm. Then the long tongue, which is capable 
of being thrown out some eighteen inches, goes rapidly 
to work, being projected about twice in a second, and each 
time drawing in many dozens of ants. 



140 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"On every side are seen, descending down, 
Thick swarms of souldiers loaden from the town; 
Thus, in Battalia, march embody'd ants, 
Fearful of winter, and of future wants." — Dryden. 



473. The ant-eater has two very large glands situated below the 
roof of the tongue. From this is emitted the glutinous liquid with which 
the long tongue is lubricated when he puts it into the ants' nests. These 
glands are of the same nature as those found in the lower jaw of the 
wood-pecker. The secretion when wet is very clammy and adhesive, 
but on being dried it loses those qualities, and may be pulverized between 
th finger and thumb. 

424. Why are ant-eaters of great importance in the 
economy of nature? 

Because, without the check which they put upon the 
multiplication of ants, the produce of the soil, even in the 

most fertile parts of the 
world, would inevitably 
be destroyed. It seems 
almost incredible that so 
robust and powerful an 
animal as the ant-eater, 
or ant-bear, can procure 
sufficient subsistence from 
ants alone; but this cir- 
cumstance has nothing 
strange for those who are 
acquainted with the trop- 
ical parts of America, 
where the ant-hills often 
almost touch one another 
for miles together. 

425. The ant-hills of South America are often more than twenty feet 
in diameter, and many feet in height. These wonderful edifices are 
thronged with two-hundred-fold more inhabitants, and are proportionally 
far more numerous than the small ones, with which we are better 
acquainted. Breeding in vast numbers, and multiplying with great celerity 
and profusion, the increase of these insects would soon enable them to 
swarm over the greatest extent of country, were not their propagation 
and diffusion stinted by the active exertions of that part of the animal 
creation which continually subsist by their destruction. 

The following short passage from Mr. Darwin's ^Observations on 
the Natural History of Rio de Janeiro" will give the reader a good idea 
of the magnitude of ants' nests there: — "Traveling onward we passed 
through tracts of pasturage, much injured by the enormous conical ants' 
nests, which were nearly twelve feet high. They gave to the plain exactly 
the appearance of the mud volcanoes at Jorulla, as figured by Humboldt." 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



141 



"And that if he wol sayn it is not thus, 
I wol it prove, and finder good witnesse, 
That soth is that my bille wol expresse." — Chaucer. 



Mr. Waterton also remarks : — "In the far-extending wilds of Guiana, 
the traveler will be astonished at the immense number of ants which he 
perceives on the ground as well as in the trees. They have nests in the 
branches four or five times as large as that of the rook; and they have a 
covered way from them to the ground. In this covered way thousands 
are continually .passing and repassing, and if you destroy part of it they 
immediately repair it. Other species of ants have no covered way, but 
travel exposed to view upon the surface of the earth. You will some- 
times see a string of these ants a mile long, each carrying in his mouth 
to its nest a green leaf the size of a sixpence. 

426. Why is the ornythorynchus so called? 

From two Greek words, 

signifying a fowl and a 
bea^ in allusion to the pe- 
culiar form of its muzzle, 
which resembles the bill of 
a duck ; it is called also the 
duck-billed platypus, and 
the water mole. It is also 
web-footed, its feet being 
equally adapted for digging 
or swimming. 

427. Why is the ornythorynchus provided with this 
duck-like appendage? 

Because, although a quadruped, the animal inhabits 
the water, living in burrows on its borders, and being 
insectivorous, finds its food, as the duck in part does, by 
exploring the plants and herbs along the margins of fresh- 
water rivers and lakes. The broad beak acts as a kind 
of shovel. It is peculiar to Australia and Van Dieman's 
Land, and has been regarded by naturalists as a link be- 
tween the aquatic birds and the mammalia. 




428. So peculiar is the formation of its muzzle, that when a speci- 
men was first sent to this country a general suspicion was excited that 
a hoax was designed. Dr. Shaw expressed the opinion, that of all the 
mammalia, the ornythorynchus was the most extraordinary in its con- 
formation; exhibiting a perfect resemblance to the beak of a duck, 
engrafted upon the head of a quadruped. 



1 42 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"As for such as are whole-footed, or whose toes are webbed together 

(excepting some few) their legs are generally short, which is 

the most convenient size for swimming." — Derham. 



The ornythorynchus is about twenty inches long, having a long and 
flattened body, like that of the otter^ covered with a^ thick soft fur* 
moderately dark brown above, and whitish beneath. The beak, like the 
bill of the duck, is furnished with transverse plates. The teeth are situ- 
ated in the back of the mouth, two on each side, with flat tops and no 
roots. The feet are furnished with a membrane uniting the toes, and in 
the anterior feet extending beyond the nails. The tail is flat and obtuse. 
From the form of this animal it is fitted to reside in the water; and it 
must feed on soft food, as the structure of the beak will not enable it 
to grasp anything firmly. The central portion of the mandibles -is a bony 
continuation from the skull, and anterially and laterally, a cartilaginous 
substance, perfectly moveable, extends some little distance from the bony 
portion. Feet, five-toed and webbed. In the fore feet the web extends 
a shorty distance beyond the claws, is loose, and falls back when the 
animal burrows; claws strong, blunt, the two lateral shorter than the 
three middle ones. Hind feet short, narrow, turned backwards, and, 
when the animal is at rest, somewhat resembling a fin. The male 
ornythorynchus is armed with a spur on each hind leg, having a canal in 
it similar to that in the poison fang of venomous serpents, and, like this, 
also furnished with a gland at the base, secreting a fluid; hence it has 
been thought likely, though there is no evidence of the fact, that wounds 
produced by them would be dangerous. They have no external ear, and 
their eyes are very small, but brilliant. The motions of the mandibles 
in this animal, when seeking its food in the mud and water, are the same 
as those of a duck when feeding in similar situations. 

The young are produced in a very imperfect state, and are very 
unlike the fullgrown animal. The skin is entirely destitute of fur; the 
eyes are not formed, and their place is merely indicated by the presence 
of a few wrinkles on the skin. The margin of the bill is at that time 
soft and the tongue advances to its front edge, so that the young animal 
can obtain nourishment by sucking, which was at first thought impossible. 
The mammary gland is^ very simple in structure, and is divided into a 
large number of separate lobes. The ornythorynchus, when asleep, rolls 
itself up like a hedgehog, keeping its back warm by bringing over it 
the flattened tail. It dresses its fur, combing it with its feet, and pecking 
at it with its beak, and seems to take great delight in keeping it smooth 
and clean.* 

ORDER VII. PACHYDERMATA. 

429. Why is the seventh order of mammalia called 
Pachydermata? f 

Because they are characterized by thick skins or hides. 
The term is derived from the Greek, and means thick- 
skinned. 

* Maunder's "Treasury of Natural History." 
f Pack-e-der-ma-ta. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 143 

"Where the elephant browses at peace in his wood, 
And the river-horse gambols unscathed in the flood, 
And the mighty rhinoceros wallows at will, 
In the pool where the wild ass is drinking his fill." — Pringlb. 



430. A very imperfect notion of the appearance and texture of the 
skin of the leading species of the pachydermata, the elephant, rhinoceros, 
etc., is obtained from examining the specimens which are confined in 
menageries, even in places where they are treated with the greatest 
kindness and care. The skin of the elephant in confinement is invariably 
callous, and often apparently chapped or cracked into pieces, which have 
little or no sensibility. But when the animal is in good health, and in 
its proper climate, the skin is smooth and soft, and is probably almost 
as sensitive to the bite, even of a small-insect, as the thinnest skin that 
can be imagined. When the animal is in this condition, there is, 
indeed, a wonderful power in the muscles of the skin, so that by agitation 
of these alone an elephant is capable of shaking off a wild beast which 
may have sprung upon it. 

The hide of the rhinoceros is probably thicker than that of any other 
pachydermatous animal. Yet the creature is remarkably sensitive of 
the condition of its skin, which though not possessed of a high degree 
of feeling, exerts a considerable influence over the comfort of the animal. 
Hence the rhinoceros and other thick-skinned quadrupeds inhabiting hot 
climates, will remain for hours in the water, laving their skins, for which 
purpose it is absolutely necessary to provide baths for these animals 
when they are kept in confinement. 




431. The pachydermata are subdivided into 

1 . Proboscidea, or those possessing a prolonged snout 

or proboscis and having five toes on each foot, included in 



144 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The unwieldly elephant 

To make them mirth used all his might, and wreathed 
His lithe proboscis." — Milton. 



a very firm horny skin, as certain extinct' gigantic species, 
and the elephant, etc. 

2. The Pachydermata or dinar ia, in which the feet 
have two, three, or four toes on each foot. 

3. The Solidungpla, or quadrupeds with only one 
apparent toe, and a single hoof to each foot, although 
beneath the skin there are bony points which represent 
two lateral toes. 

By many naturalists, however, the solidungula are re- 
garded as a distinct order. 

432. Why is the elephant furnished with a proboscis? 
Because the enormous head of the animal is so heavy 

that were it placed at the end of a neck of a length pro- 
portionate to the dimensions of that organ in other animals, 
an almost incalculable amount of muscular, force would 
be necessary to elevate and sustain it. The shortness, 
and almost total absence of a neck, obviates the difficulty; 
the provision of a trunk compensates the absence of a neck- 

433. Animals in general which feed on herbage or other productions 
situated near the ground, require that the head should be attached to 
a neck the length of which is proportionate to that of its fore legs, so 
that on lowering the head it can apply its mouth to the ground without 
bending its legs. These conditions are obviously incompatible with a 
large and ponderous head like that of the elephant, and we accordingly 
find animals, such as the giraffe, having fore legs of considerable length, 
and consequently a neck in proportion, furnished with small light heads. 

434. Why is the elephant's trunk capable of a great 
variety of motions? 

Because it is made up of a great number of muscles 
with their tendons. Those muscles have their insertions 
in the internal and external coverings of the trunk; and 
they lie in a great variety of directions, some longitudinal, 
some nearly circular, and others oblique. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



145 



"Lo! from his trunk upturn'd aloft he flings 
The grateful shower; and now 
He plucks the broad-leafed bough." — Southey. 



There are in this trunk no less than jour thousand 
muscles, which is considerably greater than the 
number in the whole human body. It is divided 
through its length by a septum, forming a sort of 
double tube, terminating in a kind of finger-like 
appendage, or moveable hook. 

435. The trunk of the elephant may justly be considered 
as one of the miracles of nature, being at once the organ of 
respiration as well as the instrument by which the animal 
supplies itself with food. Nearly eight feet in length, endowed 
with exquisite sensibility, and stout in proportion to the 
massive size of the animal, this organ will uproot trees or 
gather grass — raise a piece of artillery or take up a nut, kill 
a man or brush off a fly. It conveys the food to the mouth 
and pumps up enormous draughts of water, which by its re- 
curvature are turned into and driven down the capacious throat, or show- 
ered over the body. Its length 
supplies the place of a long 
neck, which would have been 
incompatible with the support 
of the large head and weighty 
tusks. A glance at the head 
of an elephant will show the 
thickness and strength of the 
trunk at its insertion; and the 
massy arched bones of the 
face, and thick muscular neck, 
are admirably adapted for sup- 
porting and working this pow- 
erful and wonderful instru- 
ment.* 





\W^# 



436. Why is the ele- 
phant provided with 
tusks ? 

They are weapons of defense, combining enormous 
powers upon a fixed and irresistible base, in connection 
with a flexible trunk, by which the moveable tusks are 
brought into effective operation. 

That they are weapons of defense is obvious from the 
fact that they are larger in the males than in the females, 
which is generally the case with the horns of ruminants, 
some of the males only of the latter order having these 
appendages. 



♦Mauder's "Treasury of Natural History." 



146 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

— "With turcoises divinely blue, 
(Though doubts arise where first they grew. 
Whether chaste elephantine bone 
By min'rals tinged, or native stone.)" — JONES. 



437. It is remarkable that while a great number of writers have fully 
discussed the uses and curious anatomy of the elephant's trunk, they have 
been almost silent as to the uses of the tusks. It is obvious, however, 
that these prominent and ponderous weapons must be of material con- 
sequence in the economy of the animal's existance. In Partington's 
"Cyclopaedia" we find the following speculations upon the subject :- 

• In the living elephants of both varieties the tusks are either nearly 
straight or curved upwards; or if their direction be nearly that of the line 
of the face they are inclined forward at the points. In the fossil elephant, 
on the other hand (at least in all the specimens which have been found), 
the curvature of the tusks is the other way, or downward. What may be 
the use of this difference of structure it is not easy to say, because we 
know nothing of the habits of the extinct elephant, and very little of 
what the state of the country may have been when it was alive; but as 
the tusks in it are so constructed as that they might act as hooks in 
pulling down substances higher than itself, and it is probable that the 
northern marshes were at that time covered with tree ferns, and those 
other palm-like plants, of which the remains are abundant in the fossil 
state, though not a vestige of those plants now appears on the surface 
of the same regions, we may perhaps venture to conclude that such tusks 
had been employed in pulling down the fronds of the plants in order 
that the animal might feed upon them.* 

The elephant rarely uses his trunk as a weapon, but his tusks enable 
him not only to clear his way through the thick forests in which he 
lives, by rooting up small trees and tearing down cross branches, in 
doing which service they effectually protect his face and proboscis from 
injury; but they qualify him for warding off the attacks of the wily 
tiger and the furious rhinoceros, often securing him the victory by one blow, 
which transfixes the assailant to the earth. 



438. Why are the eyes of the elephant remarkably 
small? 

By their smallness they are more easily protected from 
injury while the animal is engaged in breaking down 
branches of trees. And they are also rendered more secure 
from the attacks of insects which, in the geographical 
range of the elephant, are exceedingly troublesome. 

The eye is not only protected by the comparative small- 
ness of its size, but it is provided with a nictating mem- 
brane, by which the elephant is enabled to free it from 
all accidental fragments that may fall upon it. This mem- 
brane, which is similar to that possessed by birds, is not 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 147 

♦ ^^^^^^^^ 

"Trampling his path through wood and brake. 
And canes which crackling fall before his way, 
O'ertopping the young trees, 
On comes the elephant.*' — Southey. 

the ordinary eye-lid, but a third provision T which is spe- 
cially adapted for cleansing the eye, but not for closing it. 

439. Why are the ears of the elephant unusually large? 

The office of the external ear in all animals is to 
facilitate the transmission of sounds — to catch the impulses 
of the air, and by condensing and transmitting them to a 
given point, to impart intensity to the impression. 

An animal which habitually browses upon trees must be 
liable to have its hearing frequently interrupted by the 
crackling of branches and leaves. It seems highly prob- 
able that the size of the external ear favors the reception 
of distant sounds; in other words, lengthens the focus of 
the ear. If this conjecture be correct, the ear is adapted 
to receive sounds from a distance with less interruption from 
noises that are near at hand, than would be the case if the 
ear were smaller. 



440. The structure of the elephant's ear has been investigated with 
great accuracy by Sir Everard Home. ("Comparative Anatomy," Vol. III., 
Lecture ix.) The drum and every other part of the organ, are much 
larger in proportion than in other quadrupeds, or in man; and there is 
a remarkable difference in the arrangement of the muscular fibers of 
the drum of the elephant's ear when compared with man and some 
other quadrupeds. In the human ear these fibers are radii of a circle, 
and in the horse, the hare, and the cat, they are of an uniform length. 
But in the elephant's ear these fibers are so placed that some are more 
than double the length of others. Sir E. Home argues from this re- 
markable construction that the elephant has not a musical ear; but that 
it has a peculiar compensating power in this form of fiber, as its slower 
vibrations enable it to hear sounds at a greater distance; and this 
opinion is still further sustained by the structure of the different parts 
of the internal organs, more particularly the cells between the tables of 
the skull. Sir E. Home illustrates his position that the elephant hears 
farther than any other animals, and particularly that his hearing is 
more acute than that of man, by several interesting narratives. 

We may also preceive the utility of the large flap of the ear as 
regards the symmetry and appearance of the animal. The huge form of the 
elephant is broken by less lines of beauty than may be observed in most 
other quadrupeds, and the large ear, which falls gracefully over the 
shoulders, at once presents a point of relief, and gives character and 
dignity to the whole. 



148 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The elephant hath joints; but none for courtesy; his legs 
are for necessity, not flexure." — Shakspere. 

44 1 . Why does the elephant seize a man rvith his 
trunk, yet never use it xohen he attacks a tiger? 

The elephant is gifted with a high order of instinct, 
which prompts him to entertain great concern for the preser- 
vation of his trunk, the most essential of his external mem- 
bers. The animal knows that the terrible claws of the 
tiger might at one stroke lacerate and destroy* that essential 
organ; but he does not fear to attack man with it. 



442. When the elephant is provoked to take vengeance on man, he does 
not scruple to seize him with his trunk, but never employs that member 
to grapple with a tiger, nor to hurl him in the air with it. He scents 
the tiger's lair at a distance, and instantly elevates his trunk on high, 
so that it may be as far as possible removed from the reach or spring 
of his stealthy adversary. So much does he dread the spring of the 
wild beast's attack upon this important organ, that he will throw it out 
of reach even when a dead tiger is brought into his presence. The 
following paragraph in an account of an elephant accidentally burnt at 
Dublin serves to illustrate the elephant's care for his trunk still more 
strongly: — "Doubtless the elephant's care to preserve his trunk was great, 
for when we dissected him we found it thrust nearly two feet into 
the very ground, upon which account we thought it had been burned, 
till the head was divided from the body, and then we found it was kept 
fast to the ground by the trunk, which had actually been buried therein. 



443. Why has the elephant the unusual porver of 
bending the hind leg forward at the knee joint? 

By this arrangement, which brings all the muscular 
force of the leg to act immediately 
underneath the body, the animal is 
enabled to raise its enormous bulk 
much more quickly and certainly 
than it could possibly do if its hind 
l$fi 4^? HIV~~\ l e £ s Dent outwards, as is the case 
with other animals. 



<S?Jp 




The elephant is very fond of 
rolling its unweildy form in the ooze 
and mud of groves and jungles; 

and in this enjoyment it is assisted by the facility by which 

it gets up or lies down. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 149 

"On high-rais'd decks the haughty Belgians ride, 
Beneath whose shade our humble frigates go; 
Such port the elephant bears, and so defy'd 

By the rhinoceros her unequal foe." — Dryden. 



444. A tame elephant is really the most docile, gentle, and obedient 
of all animals. He forms an attachment to his keeper; comprehends signs; 
learns to distinguish the various tones of the human voice, as expressive 
of anger, approbation, or command; is generous, grateful, and humane. 
Many ludicrous stories, compounded of truth and fable, have been related 
of the elephant. But there are sufficiently well-attested proofs of his 
sagacity without resorting to the marvelous. 

The following anecdotes and facts will be found inter- 
esting : — 

AN ELEPHANT PROTECTS THE SICK AND DYING 

445. In the Laknaor, the captial of Soubah, during the rage of an 
epidemic distemper, the principal road to the palace gate was covered 
with sick and dying people, extended on the ground and incapable of 
moving, though at a time when the Nabob was to pass on his elephant. 
The indifference of the prince about the lives of his perishing subjects, 
the haste with which he sought to pass, and the towering motions and 
heavy steps of the elephant, seemed to threaten inevitable death to those 
unhappy wretches who chanced to be inj his way. But the generous 
quadruped, without receiving any command to the purpose, and even 
without slackening his pace, dexterously assisted the poor creatures with 
his trunk, removing some, raising others, and stepping over the rest; 
so that none suffered the sligest injury. 

AN ELEPHANT GOES REGULARLY TO A HOSPITAL TO 
HAVE HIS WOUNDS DRESSED. 

446. An elephant, who, in the course of the war between the French 
and English in the East Indies, in 1759, had received a wound by a 
cannon ball: after being once or twice conducted to the hospital to have 
his wound dressed, constantly attended for himself at the proper time, 
till it was healed. That the surgeon might operate, he readily extended 
himself on the ground. He bore with patience the application even of 
burning caustic to his wound. The acuteness of the pain would some- 
times force from him a plaintive groan; but to the person who, by inflicting 
momentary torments, sought to accomplish his cure, he expressed none 
but emotions of gratitude. 

AFFECTION OF THE ELEPHANT FOR ITS SPECIES 

447. A shot from one of the hunters had broken a male elephant's left 
foreleg, which completely disabled him from running. On this occasion, 

-there occured a touching instance of affection and sagacity in the 
elephant, which well illustrates the character of this noble animal. See- 
ing the danger and distress of her mate, the female, regardless of her 
own peril, quitted her shelter in the bush, rushed out to his assistance, 
walked round and round him, chasing away the assailants, and still 
returning to his side and caressing him; and when he attempted to walk 
she placed her flank under his wounded side and supported him. This 



1 50 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Beneath his over-shadowing orb of hat, 
And ample fence of elephantine nose." — F. Phillips. 



scene continued nearly half-an-hour, until the female received a severe 
wound, which drove her again to the bush, where she speedily sank ex- 
hausted from the loss of blood; and the male soon after received a 
mortal wound. 



AN ELEPHANT'S REVENGE 



448. Carel Krieger, a celebrated elephant hunter, met with his death 
in the following manner: — He had been an indefatigable and fearless 
hunter; and, being also an excellent marksman, often ventured into the 
most dangerous situations. One day, having with his party pursued an 
elephant which he had wounded, the irritated animal suddenly turned round 
and singling out from the rest the person by whom he had been wounded, 
seized him with his trunk, and lifting his wretched victim high in the 
air, dashed him with fearful force to the ground. His companions, 
struck with horor, fled precipitately from the fatal scene, unable to turn 
their eyes to behold the rest of the tragedy. But on the following day 
they repaired to the spot, where they collected the few bones that could 
be found, and buried them near the spring. The enraged animal had not 
only trampled his body literally to pieces, but could not feel its venge- 
ance satisfied till it had pounded the very flesh into the dust, so that 
nothing of this unfortunate man remained excepting a few of the larger 
bones. 



SAGACITY OF THE ELEPHANT. 



449. When an elephant is employed upon the banks of a muddy 
river, he frequently begins to sink from his excessive weight. He will 
then endeavor to throw himself upon his side to prevent his sinking 
deeper. The manner in which he seconds the efforts which are made to 
extricate him, when situated as above stated, is very remarkable. Liberal 
supplies of straw, boughs, and grass are thrown to the distressed animal; 
and these he forces down with his trunk till they are lodged under his 
fore feet in sufficient quantity to resist his pressure. Having thus 
formed a sufficient basis for exertion, the sagacious animal next proceeds 
to thrust other bundles under his belly, and as far back under his flanks 
as he can reach; when such a basis is formed as may be, in his 
mind, proper to proceed upon, he throws his whole weight forward, and 
gets his hind feet gradually upon the straw, etc. Being once confirmed 
on a solid footing, he will next place the surrounding bundles before 
him, pressing them well with his trunk so as to form a causeway by 
which to reach the firm ground. The instinct of the animal, and probably 
the experience of his past danger, actuates him not to bear any weight 
definitely, until, by trial with his trunk and the next foot that is to be 
planted, he has completely satisfied himself of the firmness of the ground 
he has to tread upon. When he succeeds in reaching dry ground, he 
evinces his pleasure in unmistakeable signs. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



131 



"On every side 
They trembling stood, and made a long broad dyke. 
That his swift charet might have passage wide, 
Which foure great hiPfiodames did draw in teem-wise tide." — Spenser. 



450. Why is the hippopotamus so called? 
From two Greek words, meaning horse, and river, and 
having reference to the habits of the animal. 



451. Why are the 
waters seen to bubble 
when the hippopotamus 
dives beneath them? 

Because the animal 
has the power of expelling 
the air contained in its 
lungs, for the purpose of 
facilitating its descent, 
and increasing its specific 
gravity, so that it may 
more readily walk at the 
bottom. 



452. The hippopotamus 
sleeps in the small reedy islets 
which are found in the rivers 
it frequents. In these spots it 
also produces its young, having 
only one at a birth, which it 
nurses with great care. 



453. Why has the hippopotamus such enormously large 
teeth? 

Because the coarse vegetable matter which it eats is 
enormous in quantity — much greater than is consumed by 
any other animal. Its mouth is adapted for tearing and 
dividing hard and tough plants. The stomach of the hip- 
popotamus is capable of containing five or six bushels, and 
the large intestine is at least eight inches in diameter. 

These enormous teeth are also used as weapons of 
defense. Dampier related that he had known the hippo-- 




152 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Only these maris hes and myric bogs, 

In which the fearful ewftes do build their bowres, 
Yield me an hostry, 'mongst the croaking frogs, 

And harbor here in safety from these rav'nous dogs." — Spencer. 

potamus to set one tooth in the gunwale of a boat, and 
another at the distance of more than four feet, and thus 
bite a hole through the plank, and sink the boat. 

454. Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros, coarse as their sub- 
sistence may be, could live on the same kind of food as the hippopotamus. 
Its life is the rudest, and its food the coarsest of all the mammalia. Its 
office is, to clear the rivers of all those vegetable remains which, if 
allowed to accumulate in countries where vegetation is rapid, would choke 
up all the passages, and turn all the flat lands into at least periodical 
marshes,* 

455. The hippopotamus is understood to be the behemoth of Scrip- 
ture : — 

"Behold now behemoth which I made with thee; he eateth grass 
as an ox. 

"His bones are as strong pieces of brass; his bones are like bars 
of iron. 

"He lieth under the shady trees, in the covert of the reeds and fens. 

"The shady trees cover him with their shadow; the willows of the 
brook compass him about. 

"Behold he drinketh up a river, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he 
can draw up Jordan into his mouth. 

"He taketh in with his eyes: his nose pierceth through snares." 
— Job xl, xv, etc. 

456. Why does the hippopotamus n>au\ awkwardly 
upon the land? 

Because the shortness of its legs, which are well adapted 
for walking underneath the water, presents an impediment 
to its free movements upon the land. But it is also as- 
serted that the body of the hippopotamus is specifically 
heavier than that of any other animal. This, while it 
promotes the movements of the animal in the water, gives 
an awkward and cumbrous appearance to its motions on 
the land. 

The usual motion of the hippopotamus in the water is 
walking upon the bottom, although it is capable of swim- 
ming, when it desires to change its quarters, or to rise to 
the surface. 

I * Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 153 

"Man hath his daily work of body or mind, 
» And the regard of heaven on all his ways; 
While other animals inactive range, 
And of their doings God takes no account." — Milton. 

457. Why has the hippopotamus been called the river 
"horse," although possessing a very un-horseli^e body? 

The name is of very ancient origin, and was probably 
applied before the form of the animal was well-known. 
Being generally seen in the water, with its ears, eyes, and 
nostrils only emerging therefrom, it is found that the par- 
tial profile thus afforded, presents a considerable resemblance 
to the head of a horse; and hence the popular idea. 

458. Horv are the eyes and nostrils of the hippo- 
potamus adapted in their structure and position to the habits 
of the animal? 

It is necessary that the muscles of the eye should be 
powerful, endowed with great versatility, and capable of 
protruding or withdrawing the eyeball, which can be either 
projected remarkably, or sunk within the orbit considerably, 
so as to, adapt it for vision in the different media where it 
is to act, whether the animal be on land, just under water, 
or far down beneath its surface. The nostrils, which are 
so placed that they just appear above the surface of the 
water, when the animal rises from below, can be closed 
when the animal descends into the deep, and opened when 
it comes up to take in a supply of air. 

459. These two portions of the animal machinery of the hippopotamus 
are of the greatest consequence to the well-being and safety of a creature 
that spends so much of its time in the water. The beautifully con- 
trived eye has the power of rolling round when it is in a state of protrusion, 
and is admirably adapted for the requirements of the animal. If danger 
threatens, the hippopotamus instinctively rushes to the river; and while 
there hidden can manage to just lift its head among the water plants and 
take his observation. If all is safe, he can quit his retreat, or if all 
be not right he can quietly sink and remain in his cool and unapproach- 
able retreat at the bottom, occasionally rising and protruding his muzzle 
only for the necessary air supply, and then down again. 

460. Why is the rhinoceros so called? 

From a Greek word signifying nose-horn, in reference 
to the horny projection upon the snout, which is a charac- 
teristic of these animals. The rhinoceros unicornis has one 
horn, and the rhinoceros bicornis has two. 



154 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"There is no beast but hath his enemy; as tha cony the polecat, 
sheepe the woolfe, the elephant the rhinoceros, and so 
of other beasts the like." — Hackluyt. 



461. Why is the rhinoceros provided with these horny 
appendages ? 

Because the animal feeds upon the branches of trees 

and other vegetable mat- 
ter. Some of the trees 
yielding considerable re- 
sistance, the rhinoceros 
uses its horn, or horns, to 
dig under and uproot the 
tree and bring down its 
food. 




Having 
branch, he 
the leaves 
stems, and 



obtained a 
first devours 
and smaller 
then placing. 



his snout as low in the 
trunk as he finds his horns 
will enter, he rips up the 
main trunk, splitting it in- 
to thin pieces, like so many 
laths; and he then crushes 
the pieces so prepared with 
his powerful jaws. 



462. When we speak of horns our imagination pictures such as we 
are familiar with in the ox; but it must not be supposed that the 
nasal horn of the rhinoceros presents a similar structure. The nasal 
horn of the ox consists of a bony cone, or process from the skull, encased 
in a horny sheath. The nasal horn of the rhinoceros is a solid mass, 
structurally composed of agglutinated fibers, analogous to hair, and 
much resembling those into which whalebone is so easily separable. 

The horn of the rhinoceros, originating as it does in the skin only, 
has none of its sensibility. The form of the disc of skin to which it 
is attached, and the fact of its attachment equally to all parts of that 
disc, give it a strength of base which no other horn possesses; and its 
fibrous structure throughout make it secure from fracture from any 
cross strain. The circumstance of its being placed over the bone of the 
nose completely prevents any concussion of the brain, even from the 
most violent use of it; and its central position admits of its being 
employed with the whole power of the animal. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 155 

"Down sank the monster bulk, and press'd the ground, 
His arms and clattering shield on the vast body sound." — Dryden. 



The horns are also used as weapons of defense; and in one of the 
species, at least, the horns, which are moveable in a quiescent state, 
become fixed and immoveable when the animal is enraged. When moving 
through dense jungles, rhinoceri carry their heads low, and plow their 
way through the matted and entangled vegetation. 

463. Why are the eyes of the rhinoceros placed so low 
down in the head? 

Because, from the great bulk of the body, the range of 
sight would be much more limited were they placed higher 
in the head at a point having a more restricted orbit of 
motion. Set upon a lengthened axis, every partial turn 
of the head extends the range of sight. 

464. Why are the ears of the rhinoceros very move" 
able and quick of motion? 

Because, notwithstanding the advantageous position of 
the eyes, from the great bulk of the body, and low position 
of the head, the range of sight is more restricted than in other 
animals. The rhinoceros, therefore, relies to a great extent 
upon the sense of hearing; the ears are, consequently, ex- 
ceedingly sensitive, and endowed with moveable powers, 
which enable them to be instantly turned to the point of 
danger. This mobility of the ears is all the more remark- 
able when we consider the hardness of the general covering 
of the rhinoceros. 

465. Why does the skin of the rhinoceros exhiBit nu- 
merous folds? 

Dr. Parsons observes that if the hard and inflexible skin 
of the rhinoceros were continued all over the creature, as 
the skins of other animals, without any folds, he could not 
bend any way, nor perform any necessary action; but that 
suppleness in the skins of other quadrupeds which renders 
them flexible in all parts, is very well compensated in this 
animal by those folds; for, since it was necessary his skin 
should be hard for his defense, it was a noble contrivance 



156 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The nose was ugly, long, and big, 
Broad, and snouty like a pig; 
Which showed he would in dunghills love to dig." — -Otway. 

that his skin should be soft and smooth underneath, that 
when he bends himself any way, one part of his board-like 
skin should slip or shove over the other; and that these 
several folds should be placed in such parts of his body 
as might facilitate the performance of every voluntary mo- 
tion he might be disposed to make. 

466. This view is further enforced by the fact, that in the rhinoceros 
bicornis, the hide of which is not so hard, the same extent of folding 
does not exist. The Indian rhinoceros is the most remarkable for the 
density of its skin. In this species it is thrown into large folds, which 
add to the uncouth appearance of the animal, and form a sort of armor, 
very difficult to be pierced: hence it is manufactured into shields and 
the like. The arrangement of the folds, or rather solid plates with folded 
edges, is as follows: — Around the neck, which is short and deep, the 
skin forms two large folds, of which the last hangs over the front of the 
chest. The shoulders are covered with a thick hard plate, falling in a 
fold over the top of the fore limbs, and separated also by a posterior 
fold for the plate covering of the body. This is folded across the top of 
the crupper, the fold running down just below the haunch-bones, and 
loosing itself on the belly. The crupper-plate is divided by a longitudinal 
fold running to the root of the tail on each side from a large crural plate, 
which hangs in a deep fold over the thighs. Between the folds the skin 
is soft and flexible, and of a pale pink or flesh color; but everywhere 
else it is hard and dense, and covered with horny incrustations. Hence, 
were it not for these folds, the animal would necessarily be restricted in 
his motions. 

467. Why has the tapir an indurated skin over the 
head and neck? 

Because, in seeking its 
food, it pushes its way 
through dense brush-wood. 
Being almost defenseless, 
it also flies from its enemies 
into the densest thickets, 
which it does with consid- 
erable ease and speed. 

Its head is remarkably well adapted for boring through 
tangled places, being in the form of a conical wedge, 
and so thick toward the posterior part, that wherever it opens 
a way, the rest of the body can pass. 

The head and neck, as far as the shoulders, being for- 
tified with a shield of thickened skin, the tapir can the more 




KNOWLEDGE OF .NATURAL HISTORY. 



157 



"The 


bristled 


boar 










New 


grinds 


his arming tusks ar 


d digs 


the 


ground, 


He rubs his 


sides 


against a tree- 


—prepares 




And 


hardens 


both 


his shoulders 


for the 


wars." — Carey. 



readily plunge through the thicket, than if its fore quarters 
were covered only with an ordinary skin. 

468. Why have hogs thick muscular necks? 
Because their habit of rooting up the ground in quest 

of the vegetable stores that lie beneath its surface, renders 
considerable force necessary. The form of the snout, the 
motions of which its cartilaginous tip is capable, and the 
efficacy of the hind hoofs, and powerful hocks, in throwing 
the neck and shoulders well up to their work, are equally 
tributary to this natural habit. 

Sir Charles Bell, adverting to the peculiar anatomy of 
the hog, says: — 

"The formation of the skull and of the spine, and the mass of 
muscle in the neck, all show the intention that he shall drive onward 
with his whole weight and strength, so that he may rend with his tusks. 
Accordingly, we see that the back part of the skull rises in remarkable 
spines or ridges for the attachment of muscles, and that, corresponding 
with these, spinous processes of the vertebrae of the neck and back are 
of extraordinary length and strength. These processes distinctly indi- 
cate the power of the muscles which pass from the neck to the head. 
We now understand the reason of the shortness and inflexibility of 
the neck, because the power of the shoulders is directed to the head, 
and, we may say, to these large tusks. An elongated and flexible neck 
would have rendered these provisions useless. The characteristic form 
of the wild boar, then, consists in the height of the back, the shortness 
and thickness of the neck, the wedge shape of the head, the projection 
of the tusks, and the shortness of the four limbs, which must always be 
in proportion to the neck." 

469. Why is the Indian hog furnished with long crooked 
tusks ? 

It has been asserted 
by some authors that the 
animal is in the habit of 
sleeping standing, and 
that in doing so, it stead- 
ies its body by hooking 
the tusks on to the branch 
of a tree. 

Independently of this 




158 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

, — i 

"And uo and downe as he that forest sought, 
He met, he saw, a bore, with tuskes great 
That slept agenst the bright sunne's heat." — Chaucer. 

doubtful application, the tusks, which rise out of the mouth, 
and curl upwards before the eyes in a very singular man- 
ner, afford protection to the organs of vision, while the hog 
rushes through thick brushwood. These tusks are also 
used in extremity as weapons of defense. 

470. All weapons of attack which animals use when danger is appre- 
hended, contribute directly to the killing or capture of that upon which 
they feed. But the tusks of the hog species do not in any way assist 
them in the procuring of their food. They never use them but for the 
purpose of defense, and though we are apt to suppose that they make 
wanton and vicious attacks, we should, were we able to analyze all the 
cases, invariably find that the apprehension of danger, of some description 
or other, is the cause. If the defense of the animal is personal only, it 
seldom, if ever, shows fight, unless directly assailed; but almost all ani- 
mals have occasionally, at least, other defenses besides that of their 
own persons. The female, the young, and even their pasture, are at 
times objects to be fought for; and those animals which are not carnivorous 
are generally more forward and more valiant in those cases than when 
the object is simply their own safety. Hogs, probably, have more pow- 
erful instruments of defense than most other vegetable feeders. Their 
young are numerous, and quite defenseless, and their flesh at all ages is, 
in a state of nature, sweeter, perhaps, than that of any other race of 
animals.* 

471. Why do pigs run about with straws in their 
mouths when a high wind is approaching? 

Because they dread the discomfort which the blast will 
occasion them, and are induced to take up the straws with 
an undefined purpose of collecting a sufficient store to pro- 
tect them from the inclement storm. This object, however, 
they seldom or ever accomplish. Instinct impels the animals 
to take up the straws, but intelligence is wanting to direct 
them where to deposit their store. The wild hog probably 
maizes a bed for its shelter, upon the approach of a storm; 
and we see the same instinct lingering in the domesticated 
animal. 

472. Why is it commonly said that when two hogs are 
feeding together, one of them is "sure to have his foot in 
the trough"? 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. I 59 

"Neere to the shore that bord'red on the rocke, 
No merry swaine was seene to feed his flocke, 
No lusty neat-heard thither drove his kine, 
No boorish hog-heard fed his rooting swine " — Browne. 

Because when the hog meets with anything that requires 
cutting or tearing, it brings the foot into action, in order to 
strengthen the hold, and for this purpose frequently sets 
its foot in the trough. 

473. Why is it said that pigs "cut their throats' 9 when 
swimming? 

Because they are bad swimmers; their fore legs being 
set closely under them, whenever they accidentally fall into 
the water they lacerate their throats with the sharp points 
of their cloven feet. 

ORDER VIII. SOLIDUNGULA.* 

* 474. What is the meaning of the term solidungula? 
It is derived from the Latin — solidus, solid, and ungula, 
a hoof. A solidungulous animal is one the hoofs of which 
are entire. The same animals are sometimes called solipeds, 
from solus, alone, or solidus, and pes, foot. 

475. -Though there is only one toe fully developed, there are rudi- 
ments of two others under the skin, but they make no appearance 
externally. 

476. Why are solidungulous animals in a wild state 
found chiefly in plains? 

Because their solid feet enable them to bound Tiglitly 
along hard pastures and sandy plains; and the comparative 
swiftness of some of the species, and the power of endur- 
ance in others, fit them for ranging over long distances in 
search of their food. 

477. The wild ass, the zebra, the quagga, and also the wild horse 
of Central Asia, are all found on the margins of great sandy deserts, or, 
at least, in those regions where there is a great breadth of country, which 
is alternately drenched with rain and burned with drought; or where, 
as in Central Asia, the general character is dryness. They are not found 
on mountains, among rocks, or in close forests, like deer and goats; 
neither do they follow the lines of the great rivers and the rich savannahs 
so much as the ox tribe. 

* This order is by some naturalists made a sub-division of the 
Pachydermia. 



1 60 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Fixed on the goal, his eye fore-runs the course, 
His band, unerring, steers the steady horse; 
And now contracts, or now extends the rein, 
Observing still the foremost on the plain." — Pope's Homer. 

478. Why do mid horses congregate in flocks? 
Because, as they shift their ground with the change of 

seasons in pursuit of new pasturage, the same necessity ope- 
rating upon large numbers at once, they become gregarious, 
and acquire habits of association. 

479. Why are the colorings and markings of horses so 
varied? 

Numerous conjectures have been entertained as to what 
was the original color of the horse, and what have been the 
causes of the varieties that have since appeared, but the in- 
quiry has not been attended with success. 

480. The various colors of horses would seem to be truly original 
and inherent; for such of them as have, from a state of domestication, 
been suffered 'gain to run wild, have retained the color they carried 
with them, although their form has altered by being submitted to the 
agencies of climate. Neither have the original horses of different coun- 
tries, according to the accounts of travelers, exhibited in this particular 
any individual characteristic. The horses of the east are not darker 
than those of the north; on the contrary, we have white Arabians; and 
we procure the darkest breeds from the north of Europe, while in Russia, 
bright bay is as common a color as any other. Geographical distribution 
is not, however, wholly without its influence on the hair; for our heavy 
breeds, drawn from the northern parts of Europe, are very frequently 
black; but a full-blood black horse is very seldom met with. Age has 
likewise a powerful effect on the tinting of the hair; that of the colt 
alters many shades; .in some cases it becomes much lighter, and in others 
altogether much darker as the adult period arrives. But the alteration 
which takes place between the time of full growth and that of old age, is 
invariably from a darker to a lighter hue. 

481. Why, when txoo horses are in a pasture, do Tve 
frequently see one of them nibbling the shoulder or neck of 
the other? 

This action is performed for the purpose of extricating 
the irritating fly known as the hot, which commonly attacks 
horses in the parts mentioned. There cannot be a doubt 
that the animals indicate the presence of this annoyance to 
each other, for when one horse has had the fly removed 
from him, he will immediately render the same service to his 
companion. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 161 

"Think, when we talk of horses, that you see them, printing their proud 
hoofs in the receiving earth." — Shakspere. 

482. Why are horses furnished with strong hairs on 
the upper and lower lips? 

These instruments are designed for keeping flies and 
insects from annoying them, by getting into their nostrils 
while they are grazing. They are sufficiently close together 
for that purpose; and moving as they do while the horse is 
feeding, serve to brush away anything offensive. 

483. Why does the appearance of much "white" in 
the eye of a horse, indicate a vicious nature? 

Because a high-tempered horse constantly looks about, 
apprehensive of danger, or desiring to do mischief. The 
quick motion of the eyeball in opposite directions exposes 
an unusually large surface of the white, which thus be- 
comes an evidence of the temper of the animal. 

484. Why has the horse no eye-brows? 

Because, from the situation of the eyes, and the direc- 
tion of the horse's head, either when running or feeding, such 
organs would be useless. 

There are hairs on the upper eye-lid, and especially 
towards the outer corner, because the light comes from 
above; and as the animal stands, particularly when he is 
grazing, and from the lateral situation of the eyes, the greater 
portion of the light, the attacks of insects, and the running 
down of moisture, would be chiefly from the outside or 
temples. Towards the inner corner of the upper lid there 
is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger 
or obstruction in that direction. Only a small quantity of 
light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes are 
there short; but as in the act of grazing, insects may more 
readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards 
the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found 
on the lower lid. 

485. Although the horse has no eyebrows, there are several hairs 
or bristles scattered on the upper eyelid, and there is a projecting fold 



1 62 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Epirus for th* Elean chariot .breeds 
(In hopes of palms) a race of running steeds." — Dryden. 



of the lid which discharges the same office. This is by some persons 
erroneously associated with weakness or disease of the eye. But it is, 
in fact, a provision of nature to accomplish a certain purpose, and 
is. in no way connected with either health or disease. 

486. Why is the best form of horse, such as the English 
racer, peculiarly fitted for swift running ? 

Because the mechanism 
of the frame is based on 
the most correct geomet- 
rical principles, present- 
ing a series of lengthened 
levers acting by means of 
a condensed muscular and 
tendonous organization of 
great power, on angles 
capable of great flexion 
and extension; while his 
pointed form fits him to 
cleave the atmosphere, 
from which his deep chest enables him to take extensive in- 
spirations to invigorate his exertions. 

487. The essential points in the form of a horse differ as much 
as the uses he is put to vary. That which would approach perfection in 
one variety would be defective in another. The finest-formed racer that 
ever bounded over the turf at Newmarket, would cut a sorry figure in a 
London coal-wagon; while one of Barclay's splendid specimens of the 
heavy draught-horse would be even more misplaced if entered for the 
Derby. To be able to form a tolerably correct estimate of the capability 
of each variety of the horse to perform the duties required of it, from 
a view of the general figure, constitutes the very feather in the cap of 
the horse amateur. But to accomplish it requires much experience, and 
a long habit of observation, comparison, and reflection.* 

488. Why has the horse a large square jarv under the 
ear? 

To enable the teeth to bear great pressure, they are sock- 
eted very deeply in the jaw; and as the strength of the 
muscles of mastication is applied, is hot merely to close the 

* Blaine's "Rural Sports." 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. T63 

"There from the sunburnt hay field homeward creeps 
The loaded wain; while, lightened of its charge, 
The wain that meets it passes swiftly by; 
The boorish driver, leaning o'er his team." — Dryden. 

jaws, but to grind, or to rub the teeth both laterally and 
to and fro, extraordinary space is provided in the jaws 
for the lodgment of a powerful muscle which has the double 
action of closing the teeth, and of drawing the lower jaw 
across the upper. 

489. Why does a "heavy shoulder" in a horse indicate 
that he is slow, and apt to tumble? 

Because this heaviness, as it is commonly termed, re- 
sults from the upright 
posjtion of the shoulder 
blade, which position 
prevents it from revolv- 
ing freely, and so re- 
tards the forward mo- 
tion of the foot. 

The main condi- 
tion of swiftness in a 
horse is that the shoul- 
derbone should be ob- 
'SiUifa^^S^ *~ lique, as shown in the 

illustration, and that the transition from the neck to the 
shoulders instead of being abrupt, should display a smooth 
undulating surface. 

490. Why are horses ivith deep bellies, such as the 
Suffolk punch, the best calculated for continuous employ- 
ment ? 

Because when their bodies are thus formed, they carry 
their food for a long time, and consequently are enabled 
to bear a longer and a harder day's work. 

491. The Suffolk punch is particularly esteemed by the farmers of 
Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex; and it is well known that in these districts 
where this kind of horse is used, that the farmers are able to plow 
more land in a day than can be performed in any other part of England. 

Of all creatures, the horse has the smallest stomach relatively to 
its size. Had he the quadruple ruminating stomach of the ox, he would 




1 64 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"And early with thy team the glebe in furrows turn, 
That, while the turf lies open and unbound, 
Succeeding suns may bake the mellow ground." — Dryden. 



not have been at all times ready for exertion; the traveler could not 
have baited his steed, and resumed his journey. The stomach of the 
horse is not so capacious, even when distended, as to impede his wind 
and speed; and the food passes onward with a greater degree of regu- 
larity than in any other animal. If a horse drinks a pail of water, in 
eight minutes none of this water is in the stomach; it is rapidly passed 
off into the large intestine, etc. 

492. Why has the horse no gall-bladder? 

Because the process of digestion in the horse is al- 
most incessant, and the bile passes off as rapidly as it is 
formed. In other cases there is a gall-bladder, in which 
the bile is stored until required. 

Where the digestive process is performed in a large 
stomach, and the food descends in large quantities, and 
at long intervals, a gall-bladder is necessary; and there is 
the sympathy between the stomach and gall-bladder, that 
they are filled and emptied at the same time.* 

493. Why have aged horses cavities just above their 
eyes ? 

Because in old horses most of the fat of the body, 
which is more superficially placed in the young, becomes 
absorbed; in this way, the eye, which is usually embedded 
in a large quantity of this matter, losing its assistance, 
sinks within the orbits, and thus the cavities, called eye-pits, 
show themselves. 

494. Why may the age of a horse be judged by the 
appearance of the teeth? 

Because on the upper surface of the incisors a hollow 
is to be seen in the young tooth, which, not extending 
through the whole substance, naturally wears out with the 
wear of the tooth, and as a considerable degree of reg- 
ularity occurs in the wearing away in all horses, it has 
been adopted as the general criterion of age. 

495. Why should the grain which is given to horses 
be previously crushed? 

* Paley's "Natural Theology." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 65 

"Now, do thy speedy utmost, Meg, 
And win the key-stane of the brig; 
There at them thou thy tail may toss, 
A running stream they dare not cross." — Burns. 

Because, owing to the unsuitableness of the teeth for 
masticating pure grain, which in a state of nature the horse 
would never be called upon to do, the grains frequently 
find their way into the stomach whole, and consequently 
yield comparatively little or no nourishment. 

496. Why, when horses are early and hard-worked, 
do they never arrive at their full size? 

Because the earthy deposit of the bones is usually pro- 
portioned to the wants of the animal, and is most abun- 
dant in those whose exertions are considerable. But from 
this very circumstance, when the animal is subjected to 
premature exertion, the consolidation of the bones becomes 
more complete before their softer portion has increased to 
its full dimensions, and hence growth is arrested. 

497. Why will a horse, if unchecked and unguided, 
find its own way on a dark night? 

Because its eye, in addition to being well adapted for 
vision during the day, is, from the form of the retina, 
peculiarly adapted to receive impressions by night. 

498. In the darkness of night, when the traveler knows not the 
way, and would be incapable of reaching his home, his faithful horse 
will carry him in safety through the most difficult places; and be the 
path ever so intricate, and the obstacles ever so many, if the rein is 
entirely given up, not a foot of his will slip or be misplaced in the 
most difficult ground, and not one of the obstacles will he come in con- 
tact with. This is a curious point in physiology, but it is as true as 
it is worthy of admiration. The firm and entire hoof of the horse, even 
when shod with iron, seems to acquire in the dark a sense of touch 
equal to the most delicate finger; and, though we cannot account for it, 
every hair upon the skin of the animal appears to be instinct with all 
the senses necessary for guiding him along, with the same certainty as 
though it were clear daylight all about him. If the horse and the rider 
have been long acquainted with each other, and have frequently made 
nocturnal journeys, it is of no consequence, if the journey is a home- 
ward one, whether the rider pays the slightest attention to the matter 
or not; for there have been many instances in which an old and trusty 
horse has carried his rider asleep for a distance of more than twenty 
miles. There have been also instances of favorite ponies carrying blind 
musicians from house to house for the purpose of giving lessons; and 
indeed it would be impossible to enumerate half the instances which are 



166 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"He- taught men the forth drawynge 
Of bestaile, and eke the makynge 
Of oxen, and of hors the same, 
How men should them ride and tame" — Gower. 



well authenticated, of quiet and slow-going horses finding and keeping 
the way without any assistance from their riders, and the same applies 
to horses habitually used in draught.* 

499. Why is the system pursued by Mr. Rarey so 
efficacious in taming vicious horses? 

Because, without inflicting pain upon the animal, it 
fixes upon his memory the fact — that man is his master. 
All animals are subdued that once become aware of this; 
and they owe their subjection to each other to a similar 
consciousness. 

500. Mr. Rarey's system consists of rendering a horse perfectly help- 
less — not by punishment in the ordinary sense — but by depriving him 
of the use of one of his legs by the simple contrivance of a buckle and 
strap, which doubles the near fore leg upon the fore arm, and renders 
the animal helpless without inflicting pain. While in this subdued con- 
dition the horse is laid or thrown upon his side, and is then attended, 
spoken to, caressed, shown different objects which he had hitherto dreaded, 
and made familiar with sounds that, under other circumstances, would 
alarm him. In connection with all these trials he is constantly caressed 
by the operator until he gains assurance, and when at last he is released 
from subjection by the hand of his attendant, he regards man as not 
only his master but his friend. The communication of such a lesson 
demands patience, and an occasional repetition; but there can be no doubt 
of its efficiency in subduing, if not in eradicating, the vice of horses. 

The principles of Mr. Rarey's system are embodied in the follow- 
ing proposition: — 

1. That any horse may be taught to do anything that a horse can 
do, if taught in a proper manner. 

2. That a horse is not conscious of his own strength, until he has 
resisted and conquered a man; and that man, having the advantage of 
reasoning powers, can handle a horse in such a manner that he shall 
not know his superior strength. 

3. That by enabling a horse to examine every objejct with which 
we desire to make him familiar, with organs naturally used for that 
purpose, viz., seeing, smelling, and feeling, you may take any object 
around, over, and on him, that does not actually hurt nim.f 

Many animals live in a state of perhaps more close domestication 
than the horse does; and the dog especially, being one which in a state 
of nature requires more art and stratagem for finding his food, is cap- 
able of evincing his attachment to his master in a variety of ways. The 
dog will fight for his master, will fawn upon his master, and will watch 
and defend his master's property with a fidelity perhaps unequaled by 
the human race. The horse does not fight for himself, for his nature is 
the very opposite of pugnacious; the horse does not fawn, for the spirit 
of the horse is noble; but, if the expression may be used, he stands to 



* Partington's "Cyclopaedia," f "Art of Taming Horses." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. P67 

"As when a dull mill asse comes near a goodly field of come, 
Kept from the birds by children's cries: the boys are overborne 
By his insensible approach, and simply he will eat, 
About whom many wands are broke, and still the children beat." 

— Chapman. 



his rider more in the relation of companion and equal than any other 
animal stands to man. There is, also, in the gratified look, the erected 
ears, the arching neck, and the subdued and murmuring neigh of the 
horse, at the sight of that rider with whom he has been long associated, 
something more touching — or, if you will, more poetical — than in . the 
fawning of all the dogs in the world. Then there is no danger which the 
horse will not brave along with his rider, and on those occasions man 
very often borrows courage of the spirit of the animal.* 

501. Why is the ass better k e pt on commons, than in 
meadows and pastures? 

Because it is naturally an inhabitant of the wilder- 
ness, and is most at home browsing among rough and tall 
plants. In pastures, although it becomes sleek and fat, 
it at the same time gets indolent and less strong and en- 
during. Besides, if the ground is soft, the hoofs of the 
ass, which are by nature adapted for hard and dry sur- 
faces, become enlarged and unnaturally extended, which 
makes the feet unsightly, and the gait of the animal awk- 
ward — circumstances which do not happen when it is 
located upon the dry common. 

502. Why is ass 9 milk so well adapted for invalids? 
Because it contains much saccharine matter, and but 

little butter; hence it is capable of being digested by stom- 
achs unequal to the task of assimilating the richer milk 
of the cow. 

503. Why are mules said to he stubborn? 

Mules are commonly used for traveling over moun- 
tainous countries and dangerous precipices. They are 
chosen for this purpose, because they are sure-footed, and 
have great powers of endurance. Being frequently heav- 
ily burdened they acquire a habit of treading with great 
caution ; and this necessity influencing the habits of suc- 
cessive generations, has imparted to them, when traveling 
on ordinary roads, an air of sluggishness and self-will. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



168 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"This said, his brass-hoofed winged horse he did to chariot binde. 
Whose crest was fring'd with manes of gold, and golden garments shin'd.' 

— The Iliad. 



504. When these animal come to one of the descents alluded to, they 
stop of themselves, without being checked by the rider; and, if he inad- 
vertently attempt to spur them on, they remain immoveable. They 
seem to contemplate the danger which lies before them, and prepare them- 
selves for the difficulty. They not only attentively view the road, but 
will sometimes tremble and snort at the danger. Having prepared for 
their descent, they place their fore feet in a posture as if they were 
stopping themselves; they then also put their hinder feet together, but 
a little forward, as if they were about to lie down; then, moving with 
unerring caution, they proceed forward. 



505. Why are the zebra and onaga found in hilly 
and mountainous places? 

Because, although closely allied to horses and quaggas, 
which are never found but 
on plains, their hoofs are 
differently formed, being 
adapted to the nature of 
the footing afforded by 
hilly and mountainous 
districts. 

The hoofs of horses 
are round and flat ; in the 
ass they are oval and hol- 
low, and in zebras and 
onagas they are oval at the 
toe, and square at the 
heel, by the spreading of 
that part which is termed 
the "frog." This causes 
the limb to stand more ver- 
tically upon the postern, 
and gives a sharp, firm 
tread upon declivities. 




506. The zebra is, perhaps, of all quadrupeds the best made and 
the most beautifully clad by the hand of nature. To the figure and graces 
of the horse, it adds the elegance of the stag; and the black and white 
bands with which its body is ornamented are arranged with such wonderful 
symmetry that we might almost be disposed to imagine that rule and 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 169 

''Others, filled with pasturage, gazing sat, 
Or bedward ruminating. " — Milton. 



compass had been employed in their formation. These alternate bands 
are narrow, parallel, and exactly separated; they extend not only over 
the body, but the head, thighs, and legs, and even over the ears and 
tail. They folow so exactly the contours oi the different parts, enlarging 
more or less according to the development of the muscles, and the round- 
ness of the different forms, that they exhibit the entire figure in the 
most advantageous point of view. In the female these bands are alter- 
nately black and white, in the male they are black and yellow, but always 
of a lively and brilliant tint. They also rest upon a ground of short, 
fine, and copious hairs, whose luster considerably augments the general 
beauty of the colors.* 

ORDER IX. RUMINANTIA. 

507. Why are the animals of the ninth order called 
ruminants ? 

Because they chew again the food which has been 
swallowed, slightly masticated. The word is derived from 
the Latin rumino, from rumen, the cud. 

508. Why do numerous herbivorous animals "cherv 

the cud"? 

Because in a state of nature they are liable to be sur- 
prised and preyed upon by their carnivorous enemies while 
feeding. They are therefore endowed with stomachs cap- 
able of receiving a large quantity of food in a crude state, 
and with the power of returning it again, to be brought 
under the action of the teeth, when the animal has retired 
to a place of comparative security. 

509. The class of ruminants feed on the coarser kind of herbage 
where they are in abundance; but the actual nutritious matter is small 
in quantity compared with the mass. There is, therefore, an obvious 
necessity for a more complex apparatus to extract the smaller proportion 
of matter capable of being animalized; hence the various preparations for 
digestion. When the mass is digested, the nutritious part is still small 
in proportion to the whole; and, to permit that smaller part to be pre- 
pared and carried into the system, the intestinal canal must be long and 
complex, offering resistance to the rapid descent of the, food, and giving 
it lodgment: and thus there is always a correspondence between the 
complication of the stomach and the length of the intestines, and between 
both and the nature of the food. 

It is further remarkable, that when animals of the same species live 
in different climates, where there is more or less abundance of vegetable 
food, there is an adaptation of their digestive organs. When it is 

* Buffon. 



1 70 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

''The condemned English 
Sit patiently, and inly ruminate 
The morning's danger. — Shakspere. 



abundant, the configuration of the intestines which is intended to delay 
its "descent is less complex; when the food is scarcer, the intestine is 
longer, and the obstruction afforded by the valves is greater. 

510. How is the process of rumination conducted? 

The stomachs of ruminating animals are divided into 
four chambers, of which the first three are so disposed that 
the aliment can enter at the will of the animal into any 
one of them. 



511. The first stomach, or paunch, is divided outwardly into two 
bag-like appendages at its extremity, and is slightly separated into four 
parts on the inside. Here are received the masses of herbage, rudely 
broken up by the first mastication. But no true digestion occurs here; 
only a-' slight maceration, such as water would produce in a degree of 
moderate heat. The herbage is afterwards transmitted in this state to 
the second stomach, or honeycomb-bag, so called from the honeycomb 
similarity of the surface of its coats. Here the herbage is arrested, and 
compressed into small maws, or balls, which are' thence returned at 
leisure successively to the mouth for re-mastication. 

During this operation the animal remains in a state of repose until 
all the herbage swallowed has undergone the action of the molar teeth a 
second time. The aliment thus re-masticated is transmitted into the 
third or smallest stomach, the laminae on the walls of which bear a 
resemblance to the edges of the leaves of a book when slightly opened. 
From the third stomach the food is transmitted into the fourth, which 
is next in size to the first stomach, or paunch, and with an internal villous 
coat similar to that of the human stomach, with large longitudinal wrinkles. 
This last is the chief organ of digestion. 

The first three stomachs are connected with each other, and with 
the oesophagus, or throat, in a very remarkable way. The latter tube 
enters just where the paunch and the second and third stomachs approach 
each other; it is then continued with the groove, which ends in the 
third stomach. This groove is, therefore, open to the first stomach, 
which lie to its right and left. But the thick, prominent lips, which form 
the margin of the groove, admit of being drawn together, so as to form 
a complete canal which then constitutes a direct continuation of the 
oesophagus into the third stomach. The functions of this very singular 
part vary, according to its use as a simple groove, or a closed canal. 
In the first case, the grass, etc., is passed, after a very slight degree 
of mastication, into the paunch, as into a reservoir. Thence it goes, in 
small portions, into the second stomach, from which, after further macera- 
tion, it is propelled into the oesophagus, and conveyed by a muscular 
backward motion into the mouth. 

It is here ruminated, and again swallowed, during which the groove 
is closed, and the food, after this second mastication, is thereby con- 
ducted directly into the third stomach. During the short time which it 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 171 

"By Xinthia's light, and on the pleasant lawn, 
The wanton fairy we were wont to chase. 
Which to the nimble cloven-footed fawn, 

Upon the plain durst boldly bid the race." — Drayton. 



stays in this situation, between the folds of the internal coat, it is still 
further prepared for digestion, which is completed in the fourth or 
digestive stomach. The closing of the groove, as already described, which 
determines the chamber or stomach into which the food shall be passed, 
is an act of will on the part, of the animal. While young ruminants 
remain at the teat, and live upon milk, the fourth stomach is the largest. 
The first stomach, or paunch, only develops itself into its enormous 
volume, in proportion as it receives supplies of herbage, which increases 
with the growth of the animal. 

It is remarkable that this faculty of rumination, so important to 
the animals in their wild state, is no less valuable in their domesticated 
condition : 

Cows stand patiently while being milked, chewing the cud the while, 
and deriving gratification therefrom. 

Being driven to market, they are able to take with them a store 
of food, which serves to mitigate their hunger during a period of absti- 
nence from grazing. 

Sheep disperse their flocks and fill their paunches, and then draw 
together to chew_ the cud, by which they derive warmth during cold 
hours of the night, and obtain shelter from occasional storms. 

512. Why have all animals which chew the cud cloven 
feet? 

Because the splitting of the foot into two parts adds 
to its spring and elasticity, prevents its sinking deeply into 
soft ground, and permits it to be more easily withdrawn. 
As these animals usually feed upon pastures and other fer- 
tile places, it will be seen that this conformation of the 
foot not only favors the movements of the animal, but 
renders the tread less destructive to vegetation. 

5 1 3. What is the difference between the dromedary 
and the camel? 

The dromedary, or Arabian camel, has one hunch on 
the back; the Bactrian camel has two hunches. The 
dromedary is a lighter variety of camel, bearing much the 
same relation to the ordinary camel as a race-horse or 
hunter does to a cart-horse. It is used principally for 
journeys in which dispatch is required, and carries only 
a single rider or a very light burden. It can maintain a 
trot at the rate of from six to eight miles an hour, for 
twenty-four hours consecutively; and a gentle easy amble 



172 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Or camels knelt 
To take their loads, or horsemen scour'd the plain." — Campbell. 



of five miles an hour can be kept up by the dromedary for 
several days and nights almost uninterruptedly. 

514. Why are the 
"camel" and the "drom~ 
edary 9 so called? 

The Arabic verb from 
which the name camel is 
derived, signifies to please* 
or to behave with kind- 
ness and humanity, and, 
in its application, has ref- 
erence to the docility of 
the animal. The Greek 
word from which the 
name of the dromedary is 
derived,- means swiftness, 
running ; and has reference 
to the speed of the beast. 

5 15. Why are the 
camel and dromedary fur- 
nished with callosities (or 
hardness of the skin) ; 

namely, one on the breast, and two on each side of the fore 
legs, and one on each side of the hind legs? 

They are thus endowed because they do not lie on their 
sides, but rest and sleep with their knees bent under their 
bodies, and their breast upon the ground; these parts re- 
quire to be particularly guarded and strengthened, to resist 
the weight of the body, which is brought to bear, both 
when the animal assumes its attitude of repose, and when 
it rises up. 

516. Why is the neck of the camel of great length, 
and extremely flexible? 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 173 

"The trees, devouring caterpillars burn : 
Parch'd was the grass, and blighted was the corn." — Dryden. 

Because this structure allows the animal to crop leaves 
from the tall trees upon which it feeds, and also to bend 
the neck when drinking from springs, and other places 
where water is found? 

517. Why has the dromedary a hump upon its back? 
This hump is an accumulation of a peculiar species of 

fat, which is not liable to be acted upon by the great heat 
to which the animal is exposed. It consists chiefly of 
stearine, or hard fat. It is, in fact, a store of nourishment 
beneficently provided against the day of want, to which 
the animal in a wild state is often exposed, and from 
which he is not entirely exempted in a state of domestica- 
tion. The dromedary or camel can exist for a long period 
upon this hump alone, without any other food; and it does 
not die of want until the hump has been entirely absorbed, 
and applied to the nourishment of the system. 

518. Animals which exist chiefly upon vegetable matter, and which 
are subject to seasonal vicissitudes in their supply of food, all make 
accumulations of fat on some part of their bodies, as a provision against 
the failure of the supply of food; and their tendency to this habit is 
exactly in proportion to the need they have for it. The parts of the body 
in which this accumulation is made, and the consistency of the accumulated 
substance, are both very important points in the geographical distribution 
of animals. If the animal winters in cold latitudes, the accumulation 
of fat is generally distributed over the surface, and the substance is of 
a soft and oily nature. If, on the other hand, it inhabits warm latitudes, 
the accumulation is chiefly composed of a crystallizable fat, and is gen- 
erally situated on some part of the animal where it is least likely to 
interrupt its labor and progress. 

519. Why is the formation of the stomach of the 
camel and the dromedary admirably adapted for enabling 
the animal to take long journeys over parched deserts? 

Because the stomachs of these animals are capable 
of retaining large quantities of "water unchanged for a con- 
siderable length of time. A number of distinct sacs are 
observed to lie between the membranes of the second stom- 
ach, and to open into the stomach near the top by small 
square apertures. Through these orifices, after the stom- 



174 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Precisious and plain plodders such 
Is this, and so is that 
In love do swallow camels, whilste 

They nicely straine a gnat." — Warren. 



ach is full, the annexed bags are filled; and the water so 
deposited is, in the first place, not liable to pass into the 
intestines; in the second place is kept separate from the 
solid element; and, in the third place, is out of the reach 
of the digestive action of the stomach, or of mixture with 
the gastric juice. It appears that the animal, by the con- 
formation of its muscles, possesses the power of squeezing 
back this water from the adjacent bags into the stomach, 
whenever thirst excites it to put this power into action. 

520. Mr. Partington, from whose "Cyclopaedia" we have several times 
quoted, calls in question this endowment of the camel. We have no 
doubt, however, of the capability of the animal in this respect, though 
we think the fact has been exaggerated and wrongly described. That trav- 
elers have ever killed camels, and' taken supplies of water from their 
second stomachs, is unfounded, though frequently stated. But that the 
animal is capable of long abstinence from water, and that it derives this 
power from being able to receive and retain a store of the fluid either 
in the cells or coats of one or all of his stomachs, there cannot be the 



the camel's feet provided with large 




slightest question. 

521. Why are 
cushions or pads? 

Because a foot thus furnished is best 
adapted for treading upon sand. The foot 
of the camel is planted with a heavy down- 
ward stamp, and lifted up straight and high. 
The oval cushion underneath meets the sand 
with a dead pressure, and therefore has lit- 
tle tendency to sink into it. The extremities 
of the toes are fortified by flat nails, which have a very 
slight resemblance to proper hoofs. These give firmness to 
the cushion that lies underneath. The cushion also, being 
a non-conductor of heat, prevents the heat of the sands 
from distressing the animal upon its journey, 

522. With "what other peculiar functions is the camel 
endowed, suitable to its habits and employment? 

The elevation of the camel's head and the acuteness of 
its sight and smell, enable it to discern the green oasis, and 
to scent the refreshing water, at a great distance. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1 75 

"Like as a mastiffe having at a bay 
A salvage bull, whose cruell homes do threat 
Desperate daunger, if he them assay." — Spenser. 

The eye is shielded from the intense glare of light by 

a prominent over-hanging brow, and by long eyelashes, and 

the nostrils are so constructed as to be closed by the animal 

at pleasure, so as to k ee P ou t the fine sand which is being 

.continually driven by the wind. 

Its natural food consists, not of the meadow herbage 
and fat pastures, in which most of the ruminants delight, 
but of thorny shrubs, date leaves, and the leaves and 
branches of the tamarisk; these, when it meets with them, 
together with dates, beans, and cakes of barley, pounded 
by its master, constitute its supply of food during the toil- 
some journey. 

Hence we see the utility of its strong incisors, its 
canine teeth, and its canine-like molars, which enable it to 
browse on the coarsest shrubs with ease; while its long pre- 
hensible lip serves to draw the twigs and leaves to its mouth, 
or to hold the tuft of herbage which is undergoing mastica- 
tion. 

These explanations with reference to the camel are equally applicaBle 
to the dromedary. 

523. Why are the toes of the llama separated and 
pointed? 

Because the llama is a mountaineer, 
cropping the herbage of elevated ranges, but 
having sometimes in its wanderings to cross 
barren and heated tracts. 

Its foot, therefore, instead of having the 
toes bound to one solid oval cushion, as in 
the case of the camel, is distinguished by having the toes 
well separated, each one being provided with a complete pad. 
This foot is remarkably well-adapted for holding on 
upon the rough surfaces of precipices; whilst it is also fitted 
for occasional use upon heated and barren tracts. 

524. Why are numerous animals of the order rum- 
inantia provided with variously-shaped horns? 




176 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"To the strong ram 

Tie fast the rash offender. See at first 

His horned companion, fearful and amazed. 

Still drag him trembling o'er the rugged ground."— SOMERVILLE. 



It is obvious that these organs are, with all the tribes, 
weapons of defense: but that explanation does not suffice 
for their various and singular shapes, and for certain cir- 
cumstances connected with their history. In the deer tribe, 
for instance, horns belong only to the male in most of the 
species; in the rein-deer the female is furnished also with 




horns, but they are smaller than those of the other sex. 
The horns are composed of a bony substance, grow peri- 
odically, fall off annually, and are again renewed of a 
larger size than in the preceding year. Their forms are 
various; sometimes they spread into broad palms, which 
send out sharp snags around the outer edges; sometimes 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 177 

"That very portion which (by faithful skill 
Employ'd) might make the smiling public rear 
Her ornamented head." — Thomson. 

they divide fantastically into branches, some of which pro- 
ject over the forehead, whilst others are reared upwards in 
the air; or they may be so reclined backwards that the ani- 
mal seems almost forced to carry its head in a stiff, erect 
posture. Yet, in whatever way they grow, they appear to 
give an air of grandeur to the animal. 

It may, then, speaking in general terms, be said that 
the easy elegance of their form, the lightness of their mo- 
tions, their size, their strength, their fleetness, and the ex- 
traordinary development of those branching horns, which 
seem fully as much intended for ornament as defense, all 
.contribute towards placing horned animals in the foremost 
rank of quadrupeds. 

525. Paley remarks upon the general question: A third property of 
animal form is beauty. I do not mean relative beauty, or that of one 
animal above another of the same species, or of one species compared 
with another of the same species; but I mean, generally, the provision 
which is made in the body of almost every animal to adapt its appearance 
to the perception of the animals with which it converses. He supports 
this hypothesis by an example: — The irides (colors) of the eyes of 
animals are very beautiful, without conducing at all, by their beauty, to 
the perfection of vision; and Nature could in no part have employed 
her pencil to so much advantage, because no part presents itself so 
conspicuously to the observer, or communicates so great an effect to the 
whole aspect. 

This argument seems to be borne out by the fact, that the period 
when the deciduous horns arrive at perfection, is the season of love 
between the sexes. They continue in the male until the season of 
pairing, and in the female during the whole period of gestation; and as 
they drop off in both as soon as these great labors of the year are over, 
it is evident that they have some connection with the sexual system, and 
consequently with the affections. 

But in point of utility much may be said. The horn of the deer 
tribe, differs materially in substance from the horn of the ox. The 
former supplied man with some of his earliest and rudest instruments 
and weapons, and in the present days of luxury and refinement contribute 
largely to ornamental and useful manufactures, especially that of knife- 
handles, in which they are used in nearly their natural state. The horns 
of the ox, goat, sheep, etc., are largely used for the manufacture of combs, 
boxes, lanterns, and other articles. The consumption in these various 
uses throughout the world must be enormous. We see, therefore, in the 
horn of the ruminant, all those offices combined which are exhibited in 
other remarkable productions of nature: use to the animal; individuality 
of character and appearance; and utility to man. 

526. The term horn is commonly applied to any hard projecting body on 
the head of animals, serving as a weapon of defense; but it is strictly 
applicable only to a certain class of such weapons. For instance, the 



I 78 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The stag, too, singled from the herd, where long 
He rang'd the branching monarch of the shades, 
Before the tempest drives." — Thomson. 



antlers of the stag consists entirely of bone, and have no right to the 
denomination "horns;" the weapons of the ox the sheep, and the ante- 
In fie, consist of a sheath of true horny material on a bony core; while 
the horns of the rhinoceros are wholly composed of horny matter. Bone 
and horn are as distinct from each other, as both are from ivory; yet 
the three are often confounded by the application of the general term 
"horn" to antlers, tusks, and true horns. Besides the horns on the 
head of the animals, there are other horny processes in the hoofs, claws, 
nails, etc., and there are various modifications of horn in the scales of 
the armadillo, the plate armor of the tortoise, the spines of porcupine and 
hedgehog, and the quills of birds. 

Horn consists principally of membranous animal matter, being a 
compound of coagulated albumen, gelatine, and a small portion of phos- 
phate of lime. It has been well remarked of these proportions, "had the 
horns much more earth, they would be brittle like bones; had they much 
more gelatine, thev would be soluble like jelly or glue;" as it is, they 
are easily convertible to the purposes of the manufacturer, by whom 
they are so largely used, that considerable importations of horns are 
necessary, in addition to the supply afforded by this country. 

The horns chiefly applied to manufacturing uses are those of the bull 
and cow, with the hoofs of those animals. Large quantities are imported 
from Russia. South America, and Southern Africa. The horns of the 
bison and buffalo are also in demand, the latter being frequently reserved, 
on account of their beauty, for superior purposes. The horns of the 
chamois and antilope are polished and used in their natural forms.* 

527. Why does a stag prefer to reach water before he 
stands at hay? 

Because, from his greater height, he can maintain a 
footing, while the dogs, obliged to swim, become compara- 
tively helpless. He therefore strikes at them with his horns 
with great effect, while they have little power to attack 
him. 

528. Why are the horns of buffaloes of peculiar utility 
to them? 

Because these animals feed in close jungles, where their 
eyes are of comparatively little use; and though the ears 
may be of service, in enabling them to avoid hostile ani- 
mals and find friendly ones, they can be of no use in guid- 
ing a grazing animal to its food. Hence, the sense upon 
which they have chiefly to depend for their subsistence is 
that of smell; and, as the scent of their food comes in the 
air, and is not on the surface of the ground, they require 

* Tomlinson's "Encyclopaedia of Useful Arts and Manufactures." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



179 



"In time the savage bull doth bear the yoke." — Shakspere. 




the nose elevated while they are ranging the jungles. In 
doing this, the horns act as powerful auxiliaries, as their 
weight assists in balancing the weight of the head when the 
line of the face is carried in a horizontal position. 

529. The horns of buffaloes are of use to them in another way. These 

animals change their pastures 
by crossing rivers which 
flood when the rains fall on 
the mountains, and when it 
is dry there they run low. 
The animals float along ap- 
parently at their ease, till 
they arrive at those places 
which suit their habits. The 
manner in which they carry 
their heads in swimming is 
shown in the accompanying 
engraving; from which it is 
obvious that they use the 
weight' of their horns as a 
lever to elevate their eyes 
and nostrils. 

530. Why is the bison able to use his horns Tvith more 
effect than the ox? 

Because in this animal the horns are so situated that 
when its neck is brought into that position which has its 
greatest strength, the horn appears on the anterior and 
lateral part of the convex skull as on the crown of an arch, 
and the axis of the whole body passes between the two 
horns, and parallel to the direction of them, so that the 
animal can deliver its whole momentum from a rush or 
bound either upon both horns, or upon one of them, with 
full effect, and without injury to itself. 

531. The characteristics of the bison, which chiefly appear in the head, 
are: the forehead arched or 
convex, instead of being nearly 
flat, as in the domestic ox; the 
breadth, measured between the 
orbits of the eyes, greater than 
the height; the bases of the 
horns before the ridge of the 
occiput; the whole outlines of 
the cranial bones more curved 
or convex; the occiput being 
rounded instead of quad- 
rangular, and passing into the 
line of the forehead by an 
obtuse and rounded angle in- 
stead of an acute one. This 




180 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"While doe and roe, and red deer good, 
Have bounded by through gay greenwood. — Scott. 



form gives much greater strength to the skull, and more firmness to the 
bases of the horns; so that the bison can dash the head with much more 
impetus than the ox, either against an enemy or any obstacle, without 
the danger of equal injury either from* fracture of the skull or concussion 
of its contents. 

532. How are the structure and the habits of the 
rein-deer admirably adapted to the climate "which it inhabits? 

The rein-deer possesses a \een scent by which it dis- 
covers the lichens on which it feeds deep beneath the snow, 
and subsists easily in a climate where the face of nature 
is sealed through long-continued months of winter. As a 
beast of burthen it is invaluable to the inhabitants of the 
dreary northern regions, its broad expansive hoofs enabling 
it to pass over the yielding surface of snow with ease. For 
domestic purposes, where no substitute can be found to 
meet even the limited wants of the inhabitants, its import- 
ance is incalculable; its milk furnishes them with cheese, 
its flesh with meat, its hide clothes them, and its horn sup- 
plies the material for implements of use. 

533. In what manner do the horns of the rein-deer 
prove instrumental to the animal in procuring its food? 

By the aid of these instruments the rein-deer removes 
the deep snow from the ground, and thus arrives at the 
food destined for its subsistence. The velvety down which 
covers the antlers prevents the snow from adhering to them. 

534. Why is the neck of the elk so short, and the head 
so near to the trunk? 

Because the weight of the elk's horns is enormous, and 
if the head and horns were placed at the extremity of an 
elongated neck, they would inevitably overbalance the body. 

535. Why are stags said to shed tears? 

Such allusions are very frequent with the poets. 
Shakspere says: — 

"the big round tears 

Coursed one another down his innocent nose 
In pitious chase." 

The eyes of the stag, and nearly all the deer tribe, dis- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 181 

Tear-falling pity dwells not in this eye." — Shakspere. 

play a peculiarly weeping aspect. It depends on a remark- 
able glandular sinus, or tear-pit, situate at the inner angle 
of each eye, close to the nose, without having any com- 
munication with the eyes, or without what are termed the 
lachrymal passages. 

536. Why are deer furnished with tear-pits? 

They are composed of folds of the skin, and are cap- 
able of being opened or closed at the pleasure of the 
animal. At the bottom they are furnished with a gland, 
which secretes an oily viscous substance, of the color and 
consistence of the wax of the ears, and which hardens and 
becomes black when exposed to the air. The moistened 
moving edges of the sinus have been mistaken for tears. 

537. Why are the feet of the rein-deer deeply fissured, 
and liable to open and close? 

Because the deer browses upon 
lichens or mosses which it finds on 
the mountains of Lapland; it has 
t -f& t : 1! A occasionally to walk upon deep 
snows, and at other times upon 
craggy mountanious places. The 
spreading foot is efficacious in preventing its sinking into the 
snow, while the firm and pointed toes, when the foot is 
closed, serve to obtain a firm footing upon the crags. 

538. Why is the ox, one of the most valuable and use- 
ful beasts to man? 

Because it not only affords wholesome and agreeable 
food in this country, but is also serviceable as a beast of 
burden and of draught in many lands; and in some is com- 
monly employed for riding. 

539. The readiness of acclimation which distinguishes the ox in every 
part of the world, and in almost every range of temperature, is one of the 
most obvious causes of its extensive distribution and usefulness. In the 
northern and frozen parts of Europe, and under a tropical sun, the ox is 
found and cherished, and is applied, in a greater or less degree, to the 
many purposes of utility. The cow, during her life, provides us, in her 
copious and abundant supply of milk, with one of the most nutritive and 
wholesome aliments. t Thus useful when living, its death seems to render 
it even more extensively servicable. The flesh, the various portions of 
the stomach, and the viscera, constitute the most important articles of 





182 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY.* 



"Some ruminating lie; while others stand 
Half in the flood, and, often bending, sip 
The circling surface." — Thomson. 



food; the intestines and the bladder are employed for different uses in 
domestic economy; the horns are extensively used in manufacturing 
numerous articles of utility, ornament, and amusement; the ears and hoofs 
furnish the important article of glue; the bones form a strong manure, 
or are carved into various implements, and are thus an excellent substi- 
tute for ivory; or they yield by decomposition several essential articles 
in medicine, domestic economy, and the arts; the hair is used in mortar; 
the hide is tanned into leather; and, in fact, there is not a part of this 
most useful animal which does not, living or dead, contribute to the 
advantage of mankind. 

540. Why does the sight of blood, or anything of a 
red color, excite and infuriate the ox tribe? 

Because red is the complementary color of green; and 
the eyes of oxen being long fixed upon the green herbage 
while feeding, when they espy anything red it impresses their 
sight with a greatly-increased intensity. 

The same effect is doubtless produced upon all grazing 
animals by a red color; but oxen, being more pugnacious 
than others, show greater excitement, and often attack that 
which surprises them 

541. Why do oxen frequently stand in shallow waters 
in hot weather? 

Because, having the 
power of ruminating, they 
can take in a store of 
food, and by retiring to 
shallow waters, which 
generally lie in shady 
places, they obtain cool~ 
ness, and escape to a 
great extent the annoying 
bites of insects, while they 
contentedly chew the cud. 
The water also softens 
and cools their hoofs, and 
prevents cracks and hu- 
mors to which they are 
liable in hot weather. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 183 

"One way a band select from forage drives 
A herd of beeves, faire oxen and faire kine 
From a fat me.ddow ground." — Milton. 

542. Why do oxen use a peculiar motion with the 
tongue, when gathering herbage? 

Because their upper lip is not prehensible, like that of 
the horse. They therefore use the tongue to gather in 
the grass, which is afterwards divided by chewing. 

543. Why is it customary to hang bells around the 
necks of cattle in Switzerland ? 

Because, as they are allowed to roam among the accliv- 
ities and windings of the mountains, the sound of the bells 
tends to keep them together, and also to inform the vachers, 
or herdsmen, of their whereabouts. The bells vary in 
form and size, from a small tinkling instrument to a large 
deep-toned bell, worn by the leader of a herd. 



544. So accustomed and attached do the animals become to these bells, 
that the deprivation of them is felt as a punishment. The cow, whose 
superior beauty, sagacity, and good conduct, fit her to be the leader of 
the herd, is always on gala-days distinguished by the largest and finest- 
toned bell, and the bravest ornamental collar, and so down, through all 
the gradations of good, to the small appendage that marks the indifferently 
good or clever animal, and the total absence of ornament and distinction 
which points out the self-willed or vicious. If any cow has been guilty 
of straying, of unseemly behavior, breach of discipline, or any vicious 
trick, the displeasure of the vacher is not testified by blows, but by the 
temporary deprivation of her bell; and this seldom fails to reduce her 
to order and prevent a repetition of the offense. It is only necessary to 
see the cow on a gala-day, with her badge of distinction strapped round 
her neck, and then to see her deprived of it, for some fault or other, to 
be convinced that this is true. She is now gay, good-humored, and 
frolicsome, and then, sulky and gloomy. 

A certain cow, that had long worn the bell of honor round her 
neck, had but recently given birth to a calf, and was considered too 
weak to bear the weight of the large bell, or, indeed, of either one. Her 
master turned her out to go with the herd to the upland pastures. This 
summer removal of quarters is always held as a holiday. The peasants 
were dressed in their best clothes, the cows had on their bells, and 
all went on gaily, except the poor matron who was deprived of hers. 
After proceeding a few paces, she began to show signs of great uneasi- 
ness; this increased. It was vainly attempted to coax her forward, and 
soon she lay down on her side, and would not move. In this dilemma one 
of the old vachers same up and seeing how the case stood, cooly went to 
the house, and brought out the bell and collar, which the animal no 
sooner felt about her neck than she rose, shook herself, and raising and 



1 84 KNOWLEDGE OF. NATURAL HISTORY. 

"As from fresh pastures and the dewy field 
(When loaded cribs tbeir evening banquet yield 1 ) 
The lowing herds return: around them throng, 
With leaps and bounds, their late imprisoned young." — Pope. 

throwing her tail over her haunches, in token of complete satisfaction, 

went off prancing, kicking, and curvetting, with every appearance of 

health and gaiety; and, taking her place in the van, was from that 
moment as well as ever.* 

545. Why has the ox (the most valuable of quad- 
rupeds to man) been so easily and universally domesticated ? 

Because of its gregarious nature, which leads it readily 
to associate with any other animal that evinces no dispo- 
sition to offer it direct injury. 

546. Why has the ox, in common with other rumi- 
nating animals, a divided hoof? 

Because feet thus furnished take a firmer hold upon 
soft, yielding, or irregularly disposed ground, supporting 
the body better, and being less liable to injury than any 
other kind. Feet thus formed also do less injury to vege- 
tation than would result from flat solid hoofs. 

547. Why has the cow, which usually produces but 
one calf four or more teats? 

Because the calf, born with teeth, and requiring a' 
large quantity of nourishment, the excess in the number of 
teats enables the cow, by altering her position, to change 
the teat used by her young one, and thus to prevent its 
becoming sore by continual sucking. 

548. It is a well-known fact that human mothers change the side 
upon which children suck, for a similar reason. When a child is very 
hungry and tenacious of the breast, soreness is prevented by thus acting; 
and the appearance of teeth in the gums of the offspring is the usual 
indication that the time proper for weaning is' at hand. 

In dairy economy, there is great advantage in the number of teats, 
because one cow may be made to suckle two calves; the second cow 
being kept for milch. 

In the domesticated state, udders and teats are very liable to become 
disordered. As the udder consists of four distinct glands, each having 
a teat, the inflammation arising from one may not be communicated to 
the other, which can be milked or sucked, and the mammary system 
relieved. 

* Latrobe's "Alpenstock or, Sketches of Swiss Scenery and Manners." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 185 

"Th' ignoble never lived; they walk awhile 

Like swine, or other cattle here on earth! 
Their names are not recorded on the file 
Of life, that fall so." — B. Johnson. 



For the purposes of the calf, the division of the udder into four 
glands, each having a teat, the advantage is, that the calf can always 
be supplied. One gland forming milk, while another is being exhausted. 

549. Why do wild cattle, when fleeing from the hun- 
ter, k ee P t° the sides of fields and copses? 

Because they are then sheltered on one side from attack, 
and can the more readily take to the cover when they are 
sufficiently ahead of their pursuers, or when a good "run" 
offers an opening. 

550. Why do wild cattle, when meditating an attack 
upon an enemy — especially man — make their approaches 
in gradually diminishing circles? 

Because, in all probability the animal intends, previ- 
ously to attacking its foe, to intimidate it by a show of 
its own power and means of injury; calculating that the 
obnoxious object will, under the influence of fear, turn and 
present its most vulnerable side, or retreat altogether, with- 
out the necessity of an actual combat. 

551. Many animals before making a dart at an enemy paw the 
ground, foam at the mouth, lash themselves with their tail, and otherwise 
excite themselves to a seeming anger. All these acts are doubtless 
intended to have the same effect as the circuitous approaches, to appal 
the enemy, 

552. Why is the hair of tame and domesticated cattle 
softer and smoother than that of the wild varieties? 

On account of the protection afforded by the farmer 
and grazier against the severity of the seasons, as also from 
the more regular and choice supply of food which domesti- 
cated animals receive. 

553. There is a marked difference between the texture of the hair 
of the highland cattle and those bred in the lowlands of Scotland; and 
even the same breed under different circumstances differs in this respect. 
On their native pastures, where they are not housed, they are extremely 
rough, shaggy, and wild-looking; but when driven to the lowlands, they 
become more polished, and, on a richer pasture in a warmer climate, and 
with shelter at night, show a rich and glossy covering.* 

* Naturalists' Library. 



186 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"If milk be thy design: with plenteous hand 
Bring clover grass; and from the marshy land 
Salt herbage for the foddering rack provide, 
To fill their bags, and swell the milky tide." — Dryden. 

554. Why arc horns of tame cattle generally shorter 
than those of wild? 

Because these appendages, being obviously intended for 
weapons of offense and defense, their development nat- 
urally followed the ratio of their necessity, and decreased 
in proportion to their domestication. 



555. It would seem that while domestication softens the manners 
of animals, it also smooths the asperities of their forms. All animals, 
when under the influence of strong and angry passion, become much 
more rugged than when they are pleased. The hair stands up, the 
muscles swell into ridges, the skin is puckered, and the animal puts 
on an aspect as forbidding as possible.* 



556. Why do wild cattle feed in flocks, while the tame 
varieties scatter and browse separately? 

Because the former experience a sense of insecurity and 
dread of attack; they act instinctively upon the maxim that 
union is strength, and thus guard against surprise. The 
domesticated ox has no such dread, and follows its indi- 
vidual caprice, or sense of enjoyment. 

557. Why has the giraffe such a long slender neck? 
Because it browses upon the branches of tall trees, for 

which purpose its long neck is admirably adapted. 

558. Why has the giraffe a head so small in propor- 
tion to its size? 

Because a larger head at the extremity of the lever 
formed by the long neck would possess a weight dispro- 
portioned to the muscular power of the animal, and be a 
serious encumbrance. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



187 



"Whose height the rising forest overlooks; 

And on tree-tops the eye-sight downward casts ; 
Where distant rivers seem bestrided brooks." — Davenant. 



559o Why is the giraffe endowed with a long pre- 

hensible tongue? 

For the purpose of 
collecting together the ten- 
der twigs and leaves upon 
which it feeds. But for 
this tongue, which gath- 
ers the leaves into large 
bunches, the giraffe could 
only bite the single ends 
of the sprays, and in this 
way could obtain only a 
limited supply of food. 




560. A giraffe more than two-thirds grown will eat daily in con- 
finement eighteen pounds of clover, hay, and eighteen pounds of a mixed 
vegetable diet, consisting of carrots, mangold-wurzel, barley, split beans, 
and onions; and will drink four gallons of water. 

561. Why is the head of the giraffe surmounted by 
short erect horns? 

These horns are occasionally used as weapons of de- 
fense. We have seen them wielded by the males against 
each other with fearful and reckless force; and they are 
much dreaded by the keepers of the present living giraffes 
in the Zoological Gardens, because they are sometimes 
very suddenly put into use. 

The giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly 
elevating the head, like the dear, ox, or sheep, but strikes 
the callous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object 
of his attact with a sidelong sweep of the neck. The fe- 
male in the gardens of the Zoological Society once drove 
her horns through an inch board.* 



* Maunders "Natural History." 



188 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The elephant with pond'rous tread, 
The giraffe with exalted head." — Newman. 

562. There is another use which may be assigned to- the horns. 
Surrounded as they are with a thick tuft of hair, we are inclined to 
think that they are used as instruments of feeling. The ox looks down 
upon the pasture; but with the giraffe, the order is inverted, its food 
being over and around its head. As the giraffe carries its head beneath 
and through the branches of the trees, the long hairs upon the erect horns 
come in contact with the leaves above them, and the animal, without a 
constant effort to look up — in fact, with its eyes "turned downward and 
backward, to guard against enemies, is able to apprehend its food. 
Buffaloes, oxen, deer, etc., have similar hairs upon their nostrils; the 
giraffe is provided with them also upon the points of its horns. 



563. Why are the nostrils of the giraffe thickly inter- 
sected with stiff hairs? 

Because, while it browses among the branches of 
trees, it disturbs a great number of insects, whose attacks 
would cause great annoyance without this defense. For 
the same protective purpose, the eyes are surrounded with 
unusually large eyelashes, and also provided with a third 
or nictating membrane, which sweeps all foreign matters 
from their surface. 

564. Why are the eyes of the giraffe set prominently 
near the hack of the head? 

In that situation they are best adapted to keep watch 

against enemies, which usu- 
ally spring from behind. 
The chief defense of the 
giraffe lies in that direction; 
from the vigor of its mus- 
cles, the length of its legs, 
and the consequent velocity 
of the hoof, when it comes 
to the position in which it 
can take effect, the kick is 
truly a formidable one, and 
is said to be sufficient to 
break the skull of a lion. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 189 

"A herd of goats, each shining morn, 
Midst scraggy myrtle, pointed thorn. 
Quick glancing, to the sun display'd 
Their spotted sides, and pierced the shade." — Whitehead. 

565. Why does the lion generally attack the giraffe 
while the latter is drinking? 

Because at such times, the head being depressed, the 
giraffe cannot see the approach of the enemy; and its 
fore-legs being widely spread, so that its head may reach 
the water, the animal is then in a very helpless position. 

566. The lion lies in wait, usually in the morning, at some place 
near a stream, and in a situation somewhat elevated over its intended 
prey. There the lion waits in concealment the approach of his intended 
victim. As soon as the giraffe puts down its head to drink, all the 
advantage which its prominent eye gives it when the neck is elevated 
is gone. In this situation the lion springs, and fastens upon its back; 
and although the giraffe bounds off with terrific speed, the weight of the 
lion, and the pain of laceration, bring him to the ground. 

567. Why is it imagined that goats, £epf in stables 
with horses, improve the health of the latter? 

This is one of those popular fancies which, seemingly 
absurd at first, are found upon reflection to have some 
foundation. All animals are kept in better temper and 
greater cheerfulness by the presence of a companion, than 
in solitude; and the active and good-humored goat may, in 
this way, really perform the benefit which has been attri- 
buted to its open mistaken grounds.* 

568. Why can goats subsist upon vegetables that are 
noxious, or even poisonous, to other animals? 

This is probably a part of the great creative scheme, 
to provide for the consumption, and the keeping within 
necessary limits, those species of vegetables which having 
their special utilities, would acquire an undue preponderance 
if not kept in check. 

569. In feeding, goats are very indiscriminate, and many plants 
which are not only shunned by other ruminating animals, but act as poison 
to them, are not only eaten with impunity, but relished by them. There 
have been instances in which tame goats have chewed tobacco; and, in the 
wild state, they eat the most bitter and narcotic plants, such as euphor- 
bium, hemlock, henbane, and even digitalis, without sufferimg any injury. 

* Bell's "British Quadrupeds." 



190 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"That sheep-cot, which in yonder vale you see 
(Beset with groves, and those sweet springs hard by), 
I rather would my palace wish to be 
Than any roof of proudest majesty." — Daniel. 



Few plants are more disrelished by cattle than the common ragweed, and 
therefore the pastures on those lands in upland and humid situations are 
very much infested by it; but goats clear it off, if allowed to browse the 
plants before they come into flower. There are many of the compositae 
which are the pests of our pastures, and which are, generally speaking, 
biennials, making roots the first year, and bearing flowers the next, 
which might probably be cleared off by pasturing with goats at proper 
times. The alternation with each/other of animals, one set of which can 
eat the plants that are disliked by another, is an important point in the 
economy of our grazing districts, though it does not appear to have 
received that attention to which it is entitled.* 

570. Why do sheep make a nodding motion of the 
head when feeding? 

This motion is owing to the peculiar formation of the 
jaw and teeth. Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, 
but the bars or tke ridges of the palate thicken as they 
approach the fore part of the mouth; there is also the dense, 
fibrous, elastic matter of which they are constructed, which 
becomes condensed, and forms a cushion or bed that covers 
the convex extremity of the upper jaw, and occupies the 
place of the upper incisor or cutting teeth, and partly dis- 
charges their functions. The herbage is firmly held be- 
tween the front teeth in the lower jaw and this pad, and is 
brought away by a half biting, half tearing action, which 
occasions the peculiar motion of the head alluded Jo. 

571. The stalks of the common herbage of the field, bitten closely 
as they are by sheep, are harder and more fibrous than the portions that 
are divided and cropped by cattle: and not only so, but some breeds of 
sheep are destined to live, in part at least, on harder food than falls 
to the lot of cattle — as the different kinds of heath, or substances almost 
as difficult to be broken off as the branches of heath. The incisor teeth 
are evidently formed for browsing on these tough productions of the 
soil, which would otherwise be altogether useless and lost. The part 
of the tooth above the gum is not only, as in other animals, covered 
with enamel to enable it to bear and to preserve a sharpened edge, but 
the enamel on the upper part rises from the bone of the tooth nearly 
a quarter of an inch; and, presenting a convex surface outwards, and 
concave one within, forms a little scoop or gouge, capable of wonderful 
execution. He who will take the trouble to compare the incisor teeth 
of cattle and of sheep — both ruminants — both by means of the half 
cutting and half tearing action, having the stomach, in which the process 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 191 

"First, with assiduous care, from winter keep 
Well foddered in the stalls, thy tender sheep; 
Then spread with straw the bedding of thy fold; 
With fern beneath, to fend the bitter cold." — Dryden. 



of meceration is going forward, abundantly, supplied with absorbent or 
alkaline earth — the one, however, destined to crop little more than the 
summit of the grass, and the other to go almost to the roots, and 
occasionally to browse on harder food — will have an interesting illustration 
of the manner in which every part of every animal is adapted to the 
situation in which he is placed, and the destiny he has to fulfill. The 
pad, also, is firmer and denser than in cattle, yet sufficiently elastic, 
so that it is in no danger of injury from the sharp chisels below, while 
the interposed substance is cut through with the greatest ease. 

572. Why will sheep follow each other even into 
evident clanger? 

For two reasons. From the strength of their social 
instinct, which leads them to move together in flocks, and 
seldom if ever singly, or in an isolated manner. Secondly, 
there is no animal in which the faculty of imitation of the 
movements of their own species is so strong as in sheep. 

573. These instincts appear to have been wisely implanted in one 
of the most valuable and defenseless of domesticated animals, in order 
that they might be taken advantage of by intelligence of man. 

The leaders of the flock having been instructed and rendered manage- 
able, the obedience of the rest is secured. Every one has seen an 
illustration of this, where a butcher has 'succeeded in housing a large 
number of sheep by simply dragging in one of them. So great is their 
dislike of solitude, that if an individual is thus kept, it pines and very 
soon dies. 

574. Why is the upper lip of the sheep divided? 
Because it is thereby enabled to bite the herbage at a 

point nearer to the roots than it otherwise would. 

The sheep bites closer than the ox, and is enabled to 
follow the latter, and to procure a sufficient sustenance 
where the latter would starve. Two purposes are answered 
by this: all the nutriment that the land produces is gathered 
from it, and the pasture is made to produce more herbage 
than by any other means.* 

575. Why is there less difference between wild and 
cultivated sheep than between wild and tame cattle of the 
ox kind? 

* For very many interesting questions respecting the economy of 
sheep, cattle, etc., see "The Reason Why: Gardening and Farming." 



1 92 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"To his woundes worken, that with louely dart 
Dinting his breast had bred his restlesse paine, 
Like as the wounded whale to shore flies from the maine." — Spenser. 



Because sheep, however highly cultivated, seldom or 
ever become thoroughly tame, and are consequently less 
amenable to the laws which accompany domestication. 

576. Sheep, however domesticated, never evince any attachment to 
their keepers. When food is presented to them they come to that, but 
do not heed the person who is in the habit of feeding them unless the 
food is shown. They require the care of a shepherd to conduct them, 
and lead the flock to where it may be wanted; for, although they keep 
together, the whole would wander off, and never return to the fold, unless 
conducted. 



ORDER X. CETACEA. 

577. Why is the order Cetacea so named? 

From the Greek word k e t°s K and latin cete, signifying 
a whale. The cetaceous animals include the genera Mono- 
don (one tooth), of which the narwhal is an example; 
Baloena, or whalebone whale; Physeter, or spermaceti 
whale and Delphinus, or dolphins, which include the por- 
poise and grampus. 

578. They have no gills, but are furnished with an aperture for 
respiration on the top of the head; and they have a flat or horizontal 
tail. ^ Their habits are in general predacious, that is, they subsist by 
preying upon other animals. The whale tribe, however, has been broadly 
divided into herbivorous and carnivorous cetacea. The teeth of the herbiv- 
orous whales have a flat crown which determines their character. These 
accordingly often leave the water to creep and feed upon the land, and 
are without the distinguishing mark of the carnivorous cetacea, namely, 
the singular apparatus by which they cast up jets of water. 

579. Why has the order of Cetacea been separated 
from the classification of fishes? 

Because, although their outward shape bears consider- 
able resemblance to the fish tribe, their anatomical confor- 
mation, joined with various other characteristics, proclaim 
them to be true aquatic mammalia. 

' 580. True fishes breathe by means of gills, in which the blood is 
sufficiently acted on by the air that is contained in the water around 
them: on the other hand, the cetacea breathe by means of lungs, which 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1~93 

"And one of them I saw myselfe sunke downright with the abundance 

of water that this monstrous fish spouted, and filled 

it withall." — Holland. 



require to be filled with air from the atmosphere; so that these animals 
are obliged to come occasionally to the surface to breathe. Thus the 
function of respiration is conducted on a plan entirely different in these 
two groups. 

Again, the heart of the fish has only two cavities, and the blood 
does not return to it after passing through the gills, but is immediately 
distributed to the body; whilst the heart of the whale has jour cavities, 
and the blood returns to it after passing through the lungs. Hence, 
the plan of circulation also is entirely different in the two classes — 
being single in the one and double in the other. 

Again, the blood of the fishes is cold, and that of the whale is 
warm; another character of great importance, in regard to the relative 
activity of the vital operations in general, in these two classes respectively. 

Further, fishes are oviparous, propagating by eggs, from which the 
young come forth in due time, with little or no attention on the part 
of the parent; whilst whales are vivaporous, producing their young alive, 
and nourishing them afterwards by suckling, precisely as other mammalia. 

581. By what means is the whale enabled to eject 
water in the form of a spout? 

The apparatus by which this is accomplished, consists 
of two pouches or reservoirs, situated beneath the nostrils, 
and communicating with the back of the mouth by the usual 
nasal passage, which is furnished with a valve. 

When the animal wishes to eject water contained in its 
mouth, it moves its tongue and jaws as if about to swallow 
the fluid; but by closing the pharynx, it compels the water 
to ascend through the nasal passage, the valve of which it 
forces open, and also distends the reservoirs. There it may 
be retained until the animal wishes to eject it; and this is 
effected by a forcible compression of the pouches, which 
compels the water to escape by the nostrils ; its return to the 
mouth being prevented by the valve just mentioned. 

582. What provision have whales for the retention of 
their internal heat? 

The whale tribe have smooth and polished skins, which 
do not readily throw off the heat; underneath these, there 
is a large deposition of oily fat, which is very bad con- 
ductor of caloric. 



194 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"And as he pranced before, still seeking for a snake, 
As who would say, 'There is none here, I trow, will me forsake'; 
I might perceive a wolf, as white as whales-bone** — Surrey. 

583. Why is the enormous size of its head no impedi- 
ment to rapid locomotion? 

Because, being very light in proportion to the rest of 
the body, it serves rather to buoy up the animal, and to act 
in the nature of a balloon upon the vast mass with which it 
is connected. 



584. In the spermaceti whale the great part of this bulk is made up 
of a large, thin membranous case, containing during life a thin oil, 
of much less specific gravity than water, below which, again, is the 
substance called the "junk," which, although heavier than the spermaceti, 
is still lighter than the element in which the whale moveth. Conse- 
quently, the head, taken as a whole, is lighter specifically than any other 
part of the body, and will always have a tendency to rise, at least 
so far above as to elevate the nostril, or "blow-hole," sufficiently for all 
purposes of respiration; and, more than this, a very slight effort on the 
part of the fish only would be necessary to raise the whole of the anterior 
fiat surface of the nose out of the water. In case the animal should wish 
to increase its speed to the utmost, the narrow inferior surface of the 
head, which bears a strong resemblance to the cutwater of a ship, and 
answers the same purpose to the whale, would be the only part exposed 
to the pressure of the water in front. Thus, he would be able to pass 
with the greatest celerity and ease through the boundless tracks of his 
wide domain. 

585. What is whalebone? 

The substance known under this name, sometimes called 
baleen 9 is found in the monstrous mouth of the Baloena 
mysticetus, or whalebone whale, where it forms the substi- 
tute for teeth, of which otherwise the animal is destitute. 



586. The whalebone depends vertically, or nearly so, from the palate 
like a portcullis; is rather elastic; and its lower points are received by 
the tongue and lower gums. Its function is to act like a sieve or strainer, 
or perhaps in the nature of a mill, reducing the food which flows into 
the open mouth of the whale to a state proper for digestion. It consists 
of an immense number of fibers slightly soldered together, and covered 
with an epidermis (cuticle or skin). The maxillary (jaw) and palatial 
(palate) bones of the whalebone whales form on their interior surface two 
inclined planes, which are concave, but resemble slightly the roof of a 
house inverted. It is to these bones that the blades or plates of whale- 
bone are attached. They are widest at a point of the mouth which is 
nearer to the bottom of the gape than to the snout; and they diminish in 
size as they approach both extremities. They are attached to the bone 
by an elastic cartilaginous substance. The plates of the whalebone move 
upon these elastic hinges. When the mouth is shut, these blades lie 
one over the other like the folds of a fan, or the leaves in a flower-bud. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 195 

"Pampered with meats full, spermacetic, and fat." — Drayton. 



Whalebone forms one of the objects of the Greenland whale fishery, 
but it is not the chief. The principal reward arising from the perilous 
employment of so many men and ships is to be found in the large 
quantities of oil which are obtained from the thick cutaneous layer of 
fat, or blubber, as it is usually termed. A whale sixty feet in length 
will frequently yield more than twenty tons of pure oil; and some of the 
pieces of baleen are twelve feet long. It is for these prizes that men 
willingly expose themselves to the rigor of an Arctic winter, the chance 
of falling victim to the united effects of cold and hunger, or shipwreck 
in its most horrid form, occasioned by the irresistible crush of icebergs; 
and should the hardy mariner escape from dangers such as these, the 
harpooner not unfrequently perishes from the upsetting of the boat, owing 
to the violent plunges which the wounded animal makes in the water, or 
the whirlpool produced by his rapidly rushing down into the deep.* 



587. What is spermaceti? 

It is a substance which concretes and crystallizes spon- 
taneously out of the oil of the spermaceti rvhale. It forms 
a very pure oil for lamps, and is used in various ways in 
the arts and medicine. 



588. In the right side of the nose and head of the cachalot or 
spermaceti whale, is a large, almost triangular-shaped cavity, called by 
whalers the "case." which is lined with a beautifully glistening membrane, 
and covered by a thick layer of muscular fibers and small tendons running 
in various directions, and, finally, by the common integuments. This 
cavity is for the purpose of secreting and containing the spermaceti. The 
size of the case may be estimated, when it is stated that in a large whale 
it not unfrequently contains upwards of a ton, or more than ten large 
barrels of oil. 

The pursuit of the sperm whale is accompanied with great danger. 
"In calm weather, great difficulty is sometimes experienced in approach- 
ing the whale, on account of the quickness of his sight and hearing. 
Under these circumstances the fishers have recourse to paddles instead 
of oars, and by this means can quietly get near enough to make use of 
the harpoon. When first struck, the whale generally 'sounds,' or descends 
perpendicularly to an amazing depth, taking out, perhaps, the lines belong- 
ing to four boats, 800 fathoms! Afterwards, when weakened with lost 
of blood and fatigue, he becomes unable to sound, but passes rapidly 
along the surface, towing after him perhaps three or four boats. If he 
does not turn, the men in the boats draw in the line by which they are 
attached to the whale, and thus easily come up with him, even when 
going with great velocity, he is then lanced, and soon killed." 



Maunder's "Treasury." 



196 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 









< u 


An 


Antony 


it was, 


That 


grew th 


e more by 


reaping: his 


delights 


Were 


dolphin 


-like; 


they 


show'd his 


back above 


The 


element 


they 


lived 


in.' 


' — Spenser. 



589. Why has the shape of the dolphin been fre- 
quently and fancifully misrepresented? 

Erom two probable causes. 1 . The principle action of 
cetaceous animals is the vertical plane, or upwards and 
downwards, while that of the true fishes is in the horizontal. 
The dolphin is also a very sportive animal, sometimes leap- 
ing entirely out of the water. 

2. The spouting of dolphins, in common with other 
cetacea, lent itself naturally to the artistic mind in the con- 
struction and adornment of ornamental fountains; and 
once in the hands of the sculptor, the true form of the 
animal was soon lost. 

590. The eye of a casual observer is, however, apt to be deceived 
in witnessing these leaps, and the spectator imagines the back of a 
dolphin to be greatly curved, while it is almost straight. The cause of 
this deception is in the eye following the general curve in which the 
average mass of the body is carried during the leap; and, as the real 
shape is not very well seen while the animal is in motion, it is readily, 
and indeed necessarily, associated with this curve.* 

591. Why does the dolphin utter a sound somewhat 
resembling the human voice? 

Because it has lungs, and an air-tube leading to them. 
The dolphin cannot exist long in the water without coming 
frequently to the surface to exhale and inhale air; and it 
is in the performance of this act that the sound is occasioned. 

592. No animal but man has the faculty of articulate speech; which 
consists of vowels pronounced by means of the larynx, and of consonants 
formed by the tongue and the lips. The dolphin having no lips, and 
with a tongue not readily moveable, cannot therefore articulate. 

593. Why is the porpoise said to "roll"? 
Because its mode of progression, in common with the 

other cetacea, when near the surface of the water, consists 
of a series of leaps, its body appearing and disappearing at 
intervals with a wheel, or barrel-like motion. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 197 

"With such accoutrements, with such a form, 
Much like a porpoise, just before a storm." — Churchill. 



594. This is the mode of swimming in all the whale tribe; and 
it is easy to see, from, the formation of the tail, the most powerful 
organ of motion they possess, this must be the case. Their action, like 
that of land mammalia, is vertical, as distinguished from the horizontal 
one of fishes. Their tails strike upward and downward* and those of 
fishes laterally. The resistance to the stroke upwards is less than the 
stroke downwards, because the pressure of the water increases with its 
depth: and thus, when cetaceous animals make great exertions in swim- 
ming, they always have a tendency to "roll." 

595. Why is the porpoise (or porcpesse) so named? 
The name, signifying sea-hog, was given to this animal 

from a fancied resemblance to the hog in the character of 
its head, and in its habits of rooting for food. 

596. Why is its appearance at sea in numerous packs 
thought by mariners to forewarn a storm? 

Because it has been frequently found that previous to 
rough weather, when few sea animals can procure food, an 
instinct has led porpoises to take advantage of the oppor- 
tunity afforded by the calm, and so to provide for a period 
of deprivation. 

597. Why have whales, dolphins, etc., the flat surface 
of their tails placed horizontally, instead of vertically? 

This difference to the ordinary fishes is to favor the 
important function of respiration; for these inhabitants of 
the sea must rise to the surface to breathe the air, and their 
tails are thus directed to enable them to elevate their heads 
above water. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

598. Why is the omnivorous character of man bene- 
ficial to the lower terrestrial creation? 

Because, by his appetite for various kinds of flesh, he 
is incited to subdue and utilize every kind of animal sub- 



1 98 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"For forms are variable, and decay 
By course of kinde, and by occasion." — Spenser. 

stance. This tends to prevent the redundancy of species; 
and equally prevents their total extinction, which, on ac- 
count of the unlimited powers of destruction which man 
possesses, would sometimes occur, were his choice more 
restricted. 

From a love of vegetable food, man is led to cultivate 
and render the productions of the soil abundant and whole- 
some; and, in like manner to the operation of his appetite 
upon animal productions, he is impelled, by his love of 
variety, to cultivate every kind of herb, shrub, and tree. 

599. The instinct of hunting — if such a term may be applied to a 
being gifted with the superior faculty of reason — is universally diffused 
among men. We find the most untutored savage expert after his degree 
in the pursuits of the chase; and, under a regime of the most complete 
civilization, the gentleman is still a hunter. Fortunately for him, he 
follows the chase no longer from necessity, or to procure food, but simply 
to obtain from its mimic warfare a certain amount of relaxation and 
excitement. The cultivation of the soil is a gauge of civilization. Where 
agriculture and its kindred arts flourish, peace, health, and^ wealth are 
its attendants upon man, while the fiercer and more ferocious animals 
either cease to exist, or are kept within strong and impassable bounds. 

600. By what means is man enabled to influence the 
forms and qualities of various animals which belong to them 
at their birth; and to create, as it were, new varieties at will? 

Because all the individuals of the same species do not 
possess, to the same degree, the physical and instinctive 
qualities with which the species are generally endowed ; and 
by the exercise or the influence of physical conditions, man 
can develop a particular faculty, and consequently increase 
these differences. 

He may, within certain limits, modify races at his pleas- 
ure; for he is able to choose, or even to produce, individual 
differences, which are transmissable from one to the other; 
and to regulate the succession of generations, so as to remove 
from them all that would tend to separate the race from the 
type which he wishes to produce; and he can thus influence 
the heriditary qualities of the young, as he had done those 
of their parents.* 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



199 



"As Jacob used an ingenious invention to make Laban's cattle speckled 

or ring-staked, so much the skill in making tulips feathered and 

variegated, with stripes of divers colors." — Fuller. 



601. This is especially the case with our various domesticated ani- 
mals; and there are none that show it more strongly than dogs. Not only 
do the different races of dogs vary in the color and quantity of their 
hair, but also in the proportions of the different parts of their bodies, and 
even in their instincts. How different, for example, are the greyhound 
and the mastiff, 




the bloodhound and the spaniel. We could scarcely imagine that any 
period of time, or external influence, could ever convert one into the 
other. And yet they had one common origin; and it is found that 
their distinct forms are preserved only so long as they are matched 
in breeds. 

Among the problems of high theoretical interest which the recen: 
progress of geology and natural history has brought into notice, no one 
is more prominent, and, at the same time, more obscure, than that relating 
to the origin of species. On this difficult and mysterious subject Mr. 
Charles Darwin has bestowed long and anxious attention; and the result 
of some twenty years' observation and experiments in zoology, botany, 
and geology, has established in his mind the conclusion that those 
powers of nature which give rise to racesi and permanent varieties in 
animals and plants, are the same as those which, in much longer periods, 
produce species, and in a still longer series of ages, give rise to differ- 
ences of generic rank.* 



602. How is the distribution of animals over the sur- 
face of the globe accounted for? 

Several hypotheses have been set up to account for 
this distribution. But it may not be unreasonable to assume 



* Professor Lyed. 



200 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The heavenly bodies (as growne now lesse strong) 
Doe seeme more stalke (as weary of their race) 
All climats still new temperatures embrace, 
What strange effects must follow them ere long!"— Stirling. 

that at the beginning of the actual geological period, the 
various species were limited to narrow regions, and that 
by degrees they afterwards spread to a distance, so as to 
occupy a more or less considerable portion of the surface of 
the globe. 

603. The circumstances which favor the dissemination of species 
are of two kinds. The first is connected with or dependent on the 
nature of the animal; the second, with causes foreign to it. In the 
number of the first, the development of the locomotive power holds 
an important place. All things being equal, the species which live fixed 
to the soil, or which possess but imperfect instruments for locomotion, 
occupy but a restricted portion of the surface of the globe, compared 
with the sDecies whose movements of translation are rapid and energetic. 
Thus, birds have a most extended area, whilst reptiles, on the con- 
trary, are generally confined to narrow limits. 

604. Why do differences of climate serve to arrest the 
march of animals from one region to another? 

Because there are throughout all nature, mutual adapta- 
tions of animate and inanimate existences — of organic and 
inorganic forms. This is seen in the growth of vege- 
tables, as well as in the development of animals. 

605. Apes, which crowd the tropical regions, almost always die 
of pulmonary consumption when they are exposed to the coldness and 
humidity of our climate; while the rein-deer, formed to support the 
rigors of a long and rude Lapland winter, suffers from heat at St. 
Petersburg, and in general sinks quickly under the influence of a 
temperate climate. 

Man and the dog are the only species that can support the two 
extremes of Arctic cold and tropical heat. 

The influence of temperature on the animal economy explains to us 
why certain species remain cantoned in a chain of mountains, without 
being able to spread abroad into analogous localities. We know that 
the temperature decreases by reason of the elevation of the soil ; and 
that, in consequence, animals which live at considerable elevations could 
not descend into the low plains to reach other mountains without 
traversing countries where the temperature is much superior to that 
of their ordinary habitation. 

606. Why are the largest quadrupeds found in Africa 
and the largest reptiles in America? 

Africa abounds in dry deserts, and is the most luxurious 
as to its vegetable productions, which circumstances arc 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 201 

"What means the bull, unconscious of his strength, to play the coward, 
and flee before such a feeble thing as man?" — Blair. 

favorable to the growth of such animals as elephants, rhi- 
noceri, and hippopotami. The vast swamps which border 
the great American rivers naturally favor the development 
of the reptile order, and there abound the largest species 
and the greatest variety. 

607. What relation exists between the elevation of tem- 
perature in different zoological regions, and the organic per- 
fection of the animals inhabiting them? 

In the hottest climates the animals are found most to 
approach man; and those which in each great zoological 
division possess the organization the most complex, and the 
faculties most developed; whilst in the polar regions we 
meet only with beings occupying a rank but little elevated in 
the zoological series. The apes, for example, are limited 
to the hottest parts of the two continents; the crocodile and 
tortoise amongst reptiles; and of land-crabs amongst the 
Crustacea — all animals the most perfect in their respective 
classes. 

608. Why may we infer that animals are ignorant of 
the strength which they possess? 

Because if animals knew their strength, it would be 
impossible to harness the horse to a vehicle, or drive an ox 
to the slaughter. It is the fact of man being able to 
acquire knowledge, and animals being incapable, which 
gives the former that power over the latter by which their 
movements are made subservient to his will. 

609. Why are the fiercer preying animals generally 
solitary in their habits? 

Because their nature, but for this instinct, would lead 
them to exert their combativeness upon each other, and 
so extinguish their own species. 

Because, also, their chief purpose in creation seems to 
have been to act as checks upon the redundancy of other 
animals, or as scavengers clearing away the offal left upon 



202 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"So dismal and amazing a devastation, as in all the circumstances of 

it, is scarcely to be paralleled in history." — Tillotson. 

"That trample down the flowers and brush the dew." — Dryden. 



the earth's surface. To this end their solitariness contrib- 
utes by spreading their numbers over a wider surface, and 
with greater equality. 

610. Why are carnivorous animals, and the larger 
quadrupeds, less prolific than other species of the animal 
kingdom ? 

If the number of carnivorous animals were excessive, 
their rapacity would devastate the earth, while the larger 
quadrupeds would desolate the land by trampling down 
vegetation, and by the enormous quantity they would con- 
sume. 

611. It should also be observed that these two classes have no 
natural enemies to contend with; the sanguinary character of the one, 
and the bulk of the other, securing them from violence. Of herbivorous 
and other animals essential to man, either as food, or for his other 
purposes, the increase is surprising, and exactly proportioned to hi j 
necessities tmd to the means the earth affords for their subsistence ; 
and this rule applies equally to the wild districts, where the savage: 
tribes, in supporting their existence, check the exuberance of what wou'd 
otherwise be an evil rather than a blessing. 

■ « 612. Why do animals usually seize their prey by the 
throat? 

Because their instinct guides them to select some vital 
part, or at all events some part where death can be cause i 
in the most summary manner. 

The weasel tribe divide the blood-vessels in the side 
of the neck, even of animals much larger than themselves, 
with as much accuracy and precision as if they had care- 
fully studied the anatomical structure of their prey ; and 
though the larger cats throw themselves on the backs of 
those animals which they are unable to beat to the ground 
by the force of their spring, they tear the muscles of 
those parts on which the power of escape of their prey 
depends, and thus bring it most easily to the ground, when 
they speedily dispatch it, by lacerating the vital parts. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. J03 

"First take his head, then tell the reason why; 
Stand not to find him guilty by your laws: 
You easier shall with him your quarrel try, 
Dead than alive, who hath the better cause." — Daniel. 



613. Why do animals hunt amicably in company, and 
quarrel immediately the pursuit is over? 

Because the temporary association is generally occa- 
sioned by the pressing calls of hunger, and by an instinct 
which leads individuals to unite their strength for accom- 
plishing an act of rapine or of bloodshed. While engaged 
in this pursuit, good fellowship continues; but when the 
booty is obtained, all community is dissolved, and they 
either quarrel over their prey, or at once disperse. 

614. Hyenas, wild dogs, wolves, jackals, and the hunting leopards, 
are all striking and familiar instances of such associations. So long 
as food can be supplied by individual exertion, each appears to provide 
for itself; but when food becomes scarce, or a herd of peaceful antelopes 
are passing on their migration, they instantaneously unite into bands, 
and commence a simultaneous- attack upon their prey. 

615. How do We find that the safety of the weakest 
animals is provided for as effectually as that of the strong? 

The power of defense given to animals is peculiarly 
adapted to meet those exegencies to which every species is 
more especially exposed. The powers of protection are of 
two kinds: — 

The first are offensive: these consist in the exertion of 
force, by which assaults are made by weapons or instru- 
ments possessed by the animal itself, and requiring his 
active exertion in their use; and such powers may obviously 
be employed either in offensive or defensive warfare. The 
horns and the teeth of quadrupeds, the stings and jaws of 
insects, and the poisonous fangs of reptiles, are of this 
description. 

The second class of defenses are strictly passive; they 
are as effectual in most cases as the first class, but they 
require no exertion of the animal to bring them into opera- 
tion. We accordingly find that these protections are given 
to the weakest and most helpless animals. 

616. The power which the toad has of inflating his body to prevent 
the possibility of his being swallowed by snakes; 



204 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The name of reason she obtains by this: 
But when by reason she the truth has found, 
And standeth fixed, the Understanding is." — Davies. 



The diffusion of an offensive smell by the pole-cat; 

The emission of a black fluid by the cuttle-fish; 

The, spiny hides of the hedge-hog and the porcupine, and the sting- 
ing hairs which envelope many caterpillars, are a few out of the 
innumerable instances of the passive defenses spoken of. 

But there is still another property which does not come under 
either of these definitions, namely, the astonishing vitality possessed by 
such beings as are most exposed to injuries, and by which life is not 
only supported without food for an amazing length of time, but dis- 
located portions grow and become new animals. 

617. Why have quadrupeds feet of small dimensions 
in comparison with their bodies? 

Because when an animal is supported on four feet, the 
extent of its base of sustentation, and therefore its stability, 
cannot be augmented in a sensible degree by extending the 
magnitude of the feet. In fact, to have done so would 
have increased their weight and diminished their speed and 
activity, without conferring upon them any counteracting 
advantage. The Creator, therefore, while he gave bipeds 
stability by making them walk on the soles of their feet, 
gave quadrupeds lightness and swiftntss by causing them 
to walk on their toes. 

618. What is the difference between reason and in- 
stinct? 

Reason means the comparison of one thing with an- 
other; and in its more general sense, as applicable to the 
thoughts and conduct of man, it means the comparison 
of that which he purposes to do, with that experience in 
the past, either felt in himself or learned from others, and 
the result of which comparison is to be the guide of his 
actions. 

Instinct, though possessed by man up to a certain point, 
is the proper badge and characteristic of the lower animals. 
Taken in its general sense, it means the capacity which is 
within; which borrows nothing from comparison and can- 
not profit by experience; but acts from the impulse of per- 
fect objects on its organs of sense; also is indifferent to, 
and ignorant of, the past and the future. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 205 

"But honest instinct comes a volunteer, 
Sure never eo o'ershoot, but just to hit; 
While still too wide or short is human wit." — Pope. 



The laws which govern reason are moral laws; instinct 
is alone under physical influence. A moral law is given 
to man only because man alone has a moral nature, i. e., 
a nature distinct from his physical nature. The lower 
animals have only a physical law, which they strictly fulfill. 
Man is said to be the only ungrateful being which God has 
created, because, having received a moral nature, he fre- 
quently chooses to follow the law of physical nature only: 
ignoring, or openly disobeying, the law of his moral being. 

619. Of instinct we can know nothing further than that it is a 
name which we give to those movements and actions of animals of 
which we can give no explanation. The word instinct, though we can 
hardly avoid using it, is never anything else than a subterfuge for our 
ignorance of the means by which any action of an animal is brought 
about; and we may rest assured that natural actions are no more per- 
formed without means in the unexplained cases, than in the explained 
ones.* 

620. Why will one species of animal allow the young 
of another species to suckle it? 

Because it has been most beautifully and providentially 
ordered that the process of suckling should afford pleasure 
to the parent. So that when a dam has been deprived 
of its own offspring, it derives some amount of gratification 
from the suckling of another. 

61. Cats have been known to suckle harqs; pigs to give nurture 
to tout) Dies; and cows to goats. It has even been asserted that human 
beings, exposed to death in woods by unnatural parents, have been 
indebted to wild beasts for their nurture, an occurrance which is not 
a whit more marvelous than animals of one species allowing the offspring 
of a species totally opposed to it in habits and instinct to suckle them. 

622. Why does the attachment between young animals 
and their parents decline when the former arrive at maturity? 

Because, if the affections were allowed to operate for 
a longer period, the dispersion of animals, which is as 
essential as the scattering of the seeds of plants, would be 
materially checked. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



206 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"O imitators, . servyle beastes, 
How have your tumultes vyle 
Full oftens rasde my collor vp, 

And oftens made me smyle." — Drant. 

There are also physiological reasons, which relate to 
the health, increase, and purity of the species; and econom- 
ical reasons comprehending the means of subsistence. 

623. Why is the faculty of imitation in animals some- 
times subservient to their necessities? 

Doubtless, in the wilds of nature, many instances of 
imitation occur unobserved. An animal, unaccustomed to 
that habit, may, in great extremity, climb a tree in search 
of prey; or an herbivorous animal may dig into the earth 
to find roots. This may arise, either from imitation, or 
from a latent instinct called into operation only under the 
promptings of extreme hunger. 

But there are evidences of animals in the domestic state 
frequently imitating some action they have witnessed, when 
extremity compels them to do so. Thus a dog will attempt 
to turn the handle of a door, and sometimes successfully, 
when he wishes to obtain egress; and a cat, seeing a per- 
son eating, will extend its paw, as a human being would 
his hand, for food. 

624. The following is a remarkable account of a dog obtaining 
food by rinsing a bell: — At a convent in France, twenty paupers were 
served with a dinner at a certain hour in the day. A dog belonging to 
the convent did not fail to be present at this meal to receive the 
odds and ends which were now and then thrown down to him. The 
guests, however, were poor and hungry, and of course not very waste- 
ful; so that their pensioner did little more than scent the feast, of 
which he would fain have partaken. The portions were served by a 
persons at the ringing of a bell, and delivered out by what in a religious 
house is called a tour, which is a machine like the section of a cask, 
that, by turning round upon a pivot, exhibits whatever is placed upon 
the converse side without discovering the person who moves it. 

One day this dog, who had only received a few scraps, waited till 
the paupers were all gone, with the rope in his mouth, and rung the 
bell. This stratagem succeeded. He repeated it the next day, with the 
same good fortune. At length the cook, finding that twenty-one portions 
were delivered out instead of twenty, was determined to discover the 
trick, in doing which he had no great difficulty; for, lying hidden, notic- 
ing the paupers as they came in, in great regularity, for their different 
portions, and finding that there was no intruder except the dog, he 
began to suspect the real truth, which he was soon confirmed in when 
he saw the dog wait with great deliberation till the visitors were all 
gone, and then pull the bell. The matter was related to the com- 
munity; and, to reward the dog for his ingenuity, he was permitted to 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 207 

"What is his creation less 
Than a capacious reservoir of means 
Form'd for his use, and ready at his will." — Cowper. 



ring every day for his dinner, when a mass of broken victuals was 
purposely served out to him. 

To illustrate further the use of the imitative faculties under extrem- 
ities, we have only to adduce the simulation of death, practised by so 
many species, with intent to weaken the instinctive vigilance of their 
foes or prey. The fox has been known to personate a defunct carcase, 
when surprised in a hen-house; and it has even suffered itself to be 
carried out by the brush, and thrown upon a dung-heap, whereupon it 
instantly rose and took to its heels, to the astounding dismay of its 
human dupe. In like manner, this animal has submitted to be carried 
for more than a mile, swung over the shoulder, with its head hanging; 
till, at length, it effected its release by suddenly biting. The same 
animal has been known, when hunted, to crouch exposed upon a rock 
of nearly its own color, in the midst of a river, and so to evade detec- 
tion by its pursuers; and we perpetually hear such cases brought forward 
as decisive proofs of its extreme sagacity. 

625. How are the wisdom and goodness of Providence 
displayed in the relation which subsists between the external 
organs of an animal, by which it procures its food, and 
the internal organs by which the food is digested? 

This beautiful relation is observable in several species 
of the animal creation. Birds of prey, by their talons and 
beaks, are qualified to seize and devour many species, both 
of birds and quadrupeds. The construction of the stom- 
ach agrees exactly with the form of the members. The 
gastric juice of a bird of prey, an owl, a falcon, or a kite, 
act upon the animal fiber alone; it will not' act upon seeds 
or grasses. 

On the other hand, the conformation of the mouth of 
the sheep or the ox is suited for browsing upon herbage. 
Nothing about these animals is fitted for the pursuit of 
living prey. Accordingly it has been found by experi- 
ments, tried with perforated balls, that the gastric juice of 
ruminating animals speedily dissolves vegetables, but makes 
no impression upon animal substances. 

626. How does the structure of the jaw and teeth of 
various animals indicate the kinds of food upon which they 
subsist? 

The form of teeth may easily be understood to indicate 



208 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"For, ere the beech and elm have cast their leaf 
Deciduous, when now November dark 
Checks vegetation in the torpid plant, 
Expos'd to his cold breath, the task begins." — Cowper. 

whether they are designed for cutting or grinding. The 
relation of the jaw, and the muscular forces by which it is 
moved, requires a closer examination. 

In herbivorous animals, which have to grind down their 
food by constant trituration, the jaw is fixed to the skull, 
so as to allow the former to have a rotatory movement; 
but such a movement would be useless to carnivorous ani- 
mals, where the grinding operation is not required. 

In carnivorous animals the jaw is locked in the cavity 
of the skull by ligaments, in the same manner as the parts 
of a hinge are fixed together. The cavity is deep and 
elongated, and the articulating surface of the jaw-bone 
corresponds, so that the joint can have only a hinge-like 
motion. 

627. This is remarkably conspicuous in the condycles of the lower 
jaw of the sea-otter. The jaw of the sea-wolf is composed of several 
pieces, instead of being one entire bone; and these pieces are connected 
by ligaments, so that a greater freedom of motion is allowed, and the 
concussion to the brain arising from the reduction of crabs„ muscles, 
and other shell-fish upon which the animal feeds, is diminished, the 
jar being broken by being divided over a number of bones. 

628. Why do some animals undergo a state of torpor 
during the winter? 

Because during the winter they cannot produce more 
heat than is sufficient to raise their temperature from 20 deg. 
to 26 deg. above the surrounding atmosphere. It follows, 
therefore, that while in the hottest part of summer their 
temperature is nearly the same as that of other warm- 
blooded animals, it falls to a much lower point in the cold 
season; and whenever the depression of temperature attains 
a certain limit, the circulation and respiration decrease in 
frequency and energy, so that the animal falls into a state 
of torpor, or lethargic sleep, which continues until the 
temperature of the atmosphere is sufficiently elevated to re- 
establish the activity of the vital functions. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 209 

"The migration of birds from a hotter to a colder country, or a colder 

to a hotter, according to the seasons of the year, as their 

nature is, I know not how to give an account of 

it, it is so strange and admirable." — Ray. 

629. Why are certain species of animals destined to 
perform their functions only periodically? 

Because it has been allotted to them to check super- 
fluities and remove nuisances. 

When vegetation develops its vast powers of repro- 
duction, there issue forth from their winter retreats innumer- 
able creatures that live variously upon the roots, leaves, or 
seeds. 

When the vitality of vegetation diminishes, the natural 
office of these creatures ends; and they return again to their 
torpid condition. 

During the season when animal existenge is vigorous, 
and the destinies of nature are being fulfilled, the great 
harvest of death strews millions of bodies upon the face 
of nature. Then the scavengers are busy day and night; 
and either devour upon the surface, or bury in the earth, 
those substances which would otherwise diffuse pestilential 
influences. 

630. Why do some portions of the animal creation 
migrate ? 

For two reasons: first, the welfare of the migrating ani- 
mal is promoted by finding milder regions, and a con- 
tinual supply of food; second, the blessings of creation are 
thus diffused, by seasonable visitations of creatures useful 
to man, to those localities where he stands in need of them. 

631. Had the Creator so willed, all these animals might have Been 
organized so as not to require a warmer or colder climate for the 
breeding or rearing of their young; but His will was, that some of His 
best gifts should thus oscillate, as it were, between two points, that 
the benefit they conferred might be more widely distributed, and not 
become the sole property of the inhabitants of one climate. Thus the 
all-wise and beneficent Being has so organized certain classes of ani- 
mals, and circumstanced them, as to be directed annually, by some 
pressing want, to seek distant climates, and, after a certain period, 
to return to their former quarters; and that this instinct should be 
productive of so much good to mankind, and, at the same time, be 
necessary, under its present circumstances, for the preservation or propa- 
gation of the species of these several animals.* 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



2 1 KNOWLEDGE Of NAtU&AL HISTORY. 

"The wisdom of the Deity, as testified in the works of creation, sur- 
passes all idea we have of wisdom, drawn from the highest intel- 
lectual operations of the highest class of intelligent be- 
ings with whom we are acquainted." — Paley. 

632. How is the wisdom of Providence shown in so 
constituting the lower animals that they can exist for a 
long time on a limited supply of air and moisture? 

Because animals thus circumstanced would otherwise 
find it impossible to exist during the long intervals that 
many of them are periodically or occasionally enclosed 
in inaccessible places; so that when confined in solid rocks, 
or sealed up in the hearts of trees, so long as the smallest 
quantity of air or moisture is supplied them, they live for 
an indefinite period of time. 



633. One of the most remarkable accounts of the long duration of 
the vital principle in animals is mentioned by Dr., Silliman, who, on 
the authority of Professor Eaton, of New York, states that the diluvial 
deposit through which the Erie canal was made, contains ridges of 
hard compact gravel, and that on cutting through One of these near 
Rome village, sixteen miles west of Utica, the workmen found several 
hundreds of live molluscous animals. The workmen fried and ate them. 
He adds: "I was assured they were taken alive forty-two feet deep 
in the deposit. Several of the shells are now before me. The deposit 
is diluvial. These animals must have been there from the time of the 
deluge; for the earth in which they were is too compact for them to 
have been produced by a succession of generations. These fresh-water 
clams of three thousand years old precisely resemble the species which 
now inhabit the fresh water of that district; therefore the lives of 
these animals have been greatly prolonged by their exclusion from light 
and air for more* than three thousand years." A toad was buried in 
a flower-pot for twenty years, and when taken out was found to be 
healthy and increased in size. That snails can exist for a long period 
by means of the exclusion of air and the retention of moisture, which 
they are enabled to accomplish by a sort of door at the aperture of 
the shell, has been proved by Mr. Simon, who mentions the circumstance 
of having had one in his cabinet for fifteen years; and, for aught he 
knew, it might have been in his father's possession many years before, 
as it was in his collection of fossils. Speaking of this snail, he says it 
had come out four several times, in the presence of different people, 
each of whom assured him that they saw it. A day or two after this, 
he brought the identical shell, as he declared, into the presence of 
several other persons, that they might try if the snail would again 
make its appearance. After the shell had lain ten minutes in a glass of 
warm water, *he snail began to appear, and in five minutes more they 
perceived half the body fairly pushed out from the cavity of the shell. 
It afterwards crawled about, erected its horns, and seemed in perfect 
health. 



KNOWLEDGE Of NATURAL HISTORY. 2 1 1 

"If chance at length he find a greensward smooth, 
And faithful to the foot his spirits rise, 
He cherups brisk his ear-erecting steed, 
And winds his way with pleasure and with ease." — Cowper. 

634. Why are the ears of some animals turned for- 
wards, and those of others backwards? 

The external ears of beasts of prey, as lions, tigers, and 
wolves, have their trumpet part or concavity standing for- 
ward, to seize the sounds which are before them — namely, 
the sounds of the animals which they pursue or watch. 
The ears of animals of flight are turned backward, to give 
notice of the approach of an enemy from behind, that he 
may not steal upon them unawares. (See 392.) 

635. Why, in animals of great speed, is the shoulder 
connected to the trunk by the agency of muscles, and not 
by a collar-bone? 

Because, if animals possessing^ great speed had been 
formed with a collar-bone, it could not have withstood the 
shock from the descent of the whole weight of the animal 
when thrown forwards; and even though the structure of 
the fore legs had been as powerful as the posterior ex- 
tremities, they would have suffered fracture or dislocation. 
This beautiful provision not only serves to diminish the 
shock of descending, but contributes to the elasticity of the 
anterior extremities. 

636. Why are the knee-joints of the hind legs of most 
swimming animals turned round, as in a person who is 
knock-kneed? 

Because by this mode of articulation the hind legs form 
a kind of swimming sail; and, in consequence of this 
they act more horizontally, and thereby impel the animal 
forward in the water with more velocity and with less 
exertion. 

637. Animals which are constructed principally for walking on the 
land and make the chief exertion with the fore feet when they swim; and, 

therefore, they are sooner fatigued than when they move even faster 
upon land; but quadruped animals having a regular swimming habit, 
impel themselves chiefly by means of the hind feet, and on this account 
they are no more fatigued in water than they are on land. The reason 



212 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



— "Whose snout hath rooted up 
The fruitful vineyard of the commonwealth." 

Beaumont and Fletcher. 




of this will be readily understood by those who are aware how much 
more easily a boat is pulled by oars nearly on a level with the water 
than when the oars have to dip deeply into the water, and are used 
near the bows. 

638. Why have certain species of animals sharp-pointed 

snouts? 

To enable them to seek 
their nourishment from the 
ground. Thus the tapir spe- 
cies, nearly allied to the hog, 
have their noses much pro- 
longed in front of the mouth, 
constituting a little trunk, 
capable of lengthening and 
shortening itself. The shrews 
and small insectivorous ani- 
mals, nearly allied to the 
shrew, but formed to swim 
with ease, and to live at the bottom of burrows hollowed 
in the banks of rivers, also exhibit a similar conformation. 
(See 466.) 

639. Why is the fur of some animals changed in the 
winter from a dark to a white color? 

Because, although the darker colors absorb heat to a 
greater degree than the lighter ones, so that dark-colored 
clothing is much warmer than light-colored, where the 
wearer is exposed to the sun's rays, the radiation of heat 
is also much greater from dark than from light-colored 
surfaces, and consequently the animal heat from within 
is more completely retained by a white than by a dark 
covering. The temperature of an animal, therefore, hav- 
ing white fur, would continue more equable than that of 
one clothed in darker colors, although the latter would 
experience a greater degree of warmth when exposed to 
the sun's rays. Another reason may be that the mottled 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2 1 3 

"Nor with less waste the whisker'd vermin race, 
A countless clan, destroy the lowland cane." — Grainger. 

browns, which form the principal colors of the animals 
alluded to, although well adapted for their concealment 
amongst the brown heaths and fern of the summer and 
autumn, would be too conspicuous by contrast for the safety 
of the animals amongst the winter snow. 

640. Why are certain quadrupeds — such as the argali 
(mountain sheep of Armenia), the hare, and the sable, 
furnished with a mixed coating of hair and wool? 

Because, while wool preserves the animal heat in win- 
ter, an outer covering of hair is required to throw off mois- 
ture; and without the latter these animals would suffer both 
from wet, and from the underwood through which they 
have to force their path. 

64 1 . Why is there so much bleating and confusion 
among sheep after the ewes and lambs have been shorn? 

After this operation, neither the dams nor the young 
are able to distinguish one another as before. The em- 
barrassment arises not alone from the loss of the fleece, 
which may occasion an alteration in their appearance, but 
from a defect in the odor, by which animals discriminate 
each individual personally. The confusion is also the 
greater on account of the strong scent of the tar or other 
substance wherewith they are newly marked. 

642. Why are some species of animals furnished with 
bristly hairs, called whiskers? 

Because the skin of the upper lip, from which these 
hairs grow, is so very sensitive as to feel the slightest bend- 
ing or touch of any one of those hairs; and by this 
means they act as very important instruments in peeping 
the animal free from contact with obstacles, while it is 
advancing with its eye fixed intently on its prey. 

643. Why is the situation of the nose eminently 
adapted to its uses in all animals? 

Being turned downwards in all animals to which smell 
is important, it receives the ascending effluvia. Being situ- 



2 1 4 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"From forests, fields, from rivers, and from ponds, 
All that have webs, or cloven-footed ones, 
To the grand Ark together friendly came, 
Whose several species were too long to name." — Drayton. 

ated near the mouth, it is ever active and watchful in 
determining the proper qualities of food; and, being located 
near the eyes, it is instantly directed to objects which they 
examine, and assists them in discriminating the qualities 
of objects. 

644. How may the species of animals be determined 
by an inspection of the detached organs? 

It is from the correspondence between single char- 
acters and general plans of structures, that the nature of 
the whole animal is determined, from a single fragment 
of its skeleton, or from one of its teeth. In no animal is 
the body made up of a number of disconnected parts, 
united, as it were, at hazard ; for all its organs have a more 
or less intimate connection with each other, so that there is 
a kind of harmony amongst them all, and between every 
part and the entire structure. 

645. Thus, the simple inspection of 
the tooth represented in the accompany- 
ing figure, suffices to disclose to the 
scientific naturalist the following facts 
regarding the animal to which it belonged. 
In the first place, there must have been 
a bony framework, in which this tooth 
was planted, and which gave support to 
the rest of the body; and as this internal 
framework does not exist in any other 
animals than those of the vertebrated 
series, we know that the animal in ques- 
tion had the brain and spinal cord, the 
complete set of organs of the senses, 
the red blood, etc., etc., which belong 
to the sub-kingdom only. 

Further, there are certain characters about the roots of this tooth 
which enable the anatomist to feel certain that it must have been 
implanted in a deep socket, which is only the case in mammals and 
reptiles; and he may further determine from them, that the animal 
belonged to the former, and that it must have, therefore, possessed the 
organization which is peculiar to it. 

Again, by the form of the crown of the tooth, it is easily shown 
that it was destined to divide animal flesh ; and that it consequently 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 215 

"He hath so well beset his ordinance, 
That species of things and progressions 
Shullen enduren by successions, 
And not eterne, withouten any lie." — Chaucer. 



belonged to a carnivorous Quadruped. To digest the flesh, the animal 
must have had a stomach and intestinal canal formed upon a certain 
plan; and, in order to obtain its prey, it must have had appropriate 
organs of locomotion and prehension. Its extremities must have termi- 
nated in separate toes, and these must have been armed with claws. 
The limbs must have been furnished with very powerful muscles to 
enable the animal to give chase to its prey, or to spring upon it 
unawares, and afterwards drag it to its den. The head, also, must have 
been connected with the spinal column by ligaments and muscles of 
great power, attached to elevated portions of the vertebrae, in order that 
it might have the power of lifting the heavy bodies which the animal 
desired to remove. The lower jaw must have been connected with the 
upper by a hinge, admitting but a scraper-like action, by which the 
edges of the cutting teeth were constantly kept sharp; and the muzzle 
must not have been very protruberant, otherwise the strength of the 
muscles which raise the jaw would be applied at a great disadvantage. 
The cranial cavity must have been comparatively large, in order that 
the size of the brain might correspond with the degree of vitality which 
the habits of the animal required. By inferences of this kind, and under 
the guidance of our knowledge of the forms at present existing, all the 
leading peculiarities of an animal may be deduced from any characteristic 
portion of it; for if any part essential to the action of the remainder had 
been deficient, the animal could not have maintained its existence. 

646. We have heard an anecdote related of Cuvier, the 
great naturalist. Some hair-brained students had deter- 
mined to play a trick upon him, and to try the strength 
of his nerves. Accordingly one of them was disguised 
in a cow's skin, and concealed under a table in the dessect- 
ing-room. At a moment when the Baron was engaged in 
closely examining some portion of anatomical structure, a 
loud roar came from beneath the table. The Baron turned 
round and inquired, "Who's there?" A voice replied, 
"I am the devil, and mean to devour you!" The Baron 
looked down, and seeing a cloven hoof projecting, calmly 
proceeded to classify the animal: "Ah! divided hoof, 
herbivorous teeth, ruminating stomach; Class I., Order II., 
Sub-genus III., Species, Bos taurus — you cant cat flesh!" 
and he kicked the discomfited trickster from his hiding- 
place ! 



2 1 6 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"For when I see how they do mount on hie, 
Waving their outstretched wings with libertie, 
Then do I think, how bird-like in a cage 

.My life I leade, and grief can never swage." 

— Mirror for Magistrates. 



CLASS II.— AVES. 

ORDER I. — ACCIPETRES. 

647. Why is the first order of birds called accipetres? 
From the Latin ad and capio to seize. The name 

has been applied to this order to denote the rapacious 
character of its members. From the same root we derive 
accipitrine, as the accipitrine order of birds, or the rapa- 
cious order. The name implies takers by force. 

The accipetres have a hooked bill, the upper mandible 
near the base being extended on each side beyond the in- 
ferior. The genera include the vulture, the falcon or 
hawk, and the sirix or owl, etc. 

648. Why do birds of prey build their nests upon 
lofty and barren-rocks? 

Their predatory nature seems to impel them to a spe- 
cies of isolation; they are the banditti of creation; and, 
like them, they affect the wildest retreats from which to 
issue, and hunt down their prey. 

An elevated situation gives them a better view of their 
quarry; and the barrenness of the soil protects their eggs 
from the reptiles which would make them their prey. 

Cliffs overhanging the sea, deep lakes or rivers, afford 
to them facilities for taking fish, of which the falcon tribe 
in particular are very fond. 

649. Why are the legs and thighs of birds of prey 
shorter and more robust than those of other species? 

It is by means of these chiefly that they strike and hold 
their prey; the shortness and muscular development of the 
lower extremities giving greater power to their possessor 
in the use of the other members. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 217 

— "Their proud eyes do not see 
The radiance of my helmet there, whose beames had instantly 
Thruste backe, and all these ditches filled with carrion of their flesh, 
If Agamemmon had been kinder." — Chapman. 



650. Those who remember the exhibition a few years since, of a 
certain dwarf called Hervio Nano — (Harvey Leach) — will have seen, a 
remarkable illustration of this fact. That strangely formed individual, 
whose legs were not more than eighteen or twenty inches long, but 
whose arms, head, and chest, were finely developed, contrived with 
the greatest ease to scramble — somewhat like a lame fly — along the front 
of a proscenium and across the ceiling of a theater, by grasping the 
inequalities of the moulding only. "The Black Dwarf" of Sir Walter 
Scott was a being thus formed, and was, by the great novelist, admitted 
to be a mere transcript from the life. 

65 1 . Why are birds of prey generally destitute of the 
power of song? 

The gift of song would be of no advantage to the 
accipetres; they generally live in solitary grandeur, or lie 
concealed under circumstances where musical notes would 
prove a detriment, as serving to warn off their victims. 

652. There would appear to be some connection in this respect 
between the ruminating animals and the song birds, as distinguished 
from the carnivorous mammalia and birds of prey. The voice, if any, 
of ruminants is gentle, and not unpleasing, like that of song-birds; 
while that of the predacious tribes of both classes is either disagreeable 
or terrifying. There is something unamiable, at the very least, about 
a bird of prey which ill assorts with our ideas of music, and the warb- 
lings of the fields and groves. If the gift of melody had been at our 
disposal we should certainly have decided to withhold it from that 
species of being, whose career, however necessary in the scale of 
creation, is one of terror and rapacity. A song from the vulture — what- 
ever might be the extent of its vocal powers — would be the last thing 
asked for.* 

653. Why are some birds of prey destined to eat car- 
rion only? 

Because in doing this they act as scavengers to the 
countries which they inhabit; clearing the earth of that 
carrion which, if suffered to remain, might cause infectious 
diseases among the people of the country. 

654. An instance of the manner in which the carrion eaters per- 
form the operation of devouring dead carcases, in obedience to their 
instincts, is afforded in the following description given by the Naturalist 
Wilson: — "A horse had dropped down in the street in convulsjons, and 
dying, it was dragged out to Hampstead, near Charleston, and skinned 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia," 



218 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

— "On his bosom sat 
Two vultures, digging through his carle of fat 
Into his liver, with their crooked beaks." — Chapman. 



The ground for a hundred yards around it was black with carrion crows; 
many sat on the tops of sheds, fences, and houses within sight; sixty 
or eighty on the opposite side of a small run. I counted at one time 
two hundred and thirty-seven, but I believe there were more, besides 
several in the air over my head, and at a distance. I ventured cautiously 
within thirty yards of the carcase, where three or four dogs and twenty 
or thirty vultures were busy tearing and devouring Seeing them take 
no notice I ventured nearer, till I was within ten yards, and sat down 
on the bank. Still they paid little attention to me. The dogs, being some- 
times accidentally flapped with the wings of the vultures, would growl 
and snap at them, which would occasion them to spring up for a moment, 
but they immediately gathered in again. I remarked the vultures fre- 
quently attack each other, fighting with their claws or heels, striking like 
a cock, with open wings, and fixing their claws at each others heads. 
The females, and I believe the males likewise, made a hissing sound, 
with open mouth, exactly resembling that produced by thrusting a red-hot 
poker into water, and frequently, a snuffling like a dog clearing his 
nostrils, as I suppose they were theirs. On observing that they did not 
heed me I stole so close that my feet were within one yard of the horse's 
legs, and again sat down. They all slid aloof a few feet; but, seeing 
me quiet, they soon returned as before. As they were often- disturbed by 
the dogs, I ordered the latter home; my voice gave no alarm to the 
vultures. As soon as the dogs departed, the vultures crowded in such 
numbers, that I counted at one time thirty-seven on and around the 
carcase, with several within, so that scarcely an inch of it was visible. 
Sometimes one would come out with a large piece of the entrails, which 
in a moment was surrounded by several others, who tore it in fragments, 
and it soon disappeared. They kept up the hissing occasionally. Some 
of them, having their whole legs and heads covered with blood, presented 
a most savage aspect. Still, as the dogs advanced, I would order them 
away, which seemed to gratify the vultures; and one would pursue another 
to within a foot or two of the spot where I was sitting. Sometimes I 
observed them stretching their necks along the ground, as if to press the 
food downwards." 

655. Why is the vulture a cowardly bird, while the 
eagle is full of courage? 

Because, while a character of fearlessness and daring 
are proper and necessary for the eagle, whose instinct leads 
him to attack live, and often large animals, it is in no 
way required in the case of the vulture, contented as he 
is to feed upon carrion, and seldom attacks his prey, until 
weakness or death has rendered it unresisting. 

656. There is a variety of the vulture tribe to which these remarks 
do not strictly apply. The bearded vulture (Gypoetus barbatus) partakes 
somewhat of the nature and character of the eagle. Its appearance is less 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 2\ 9 

"Ye dregs of baseness, vultures amongst men, 
That tyre upon the hearts of generous spirits." 

— Beaumont and Fletcher. 



unpleasing than that of the other vultures. It is nicer in its food — only 
eating offal when it can procure nothing better. It is rather courageous; 
but is less widely distributed than the common vulture — the scavengers 
of creation. The bearded vulture is limited to a few countries. 

657. Why are the head and neck of vultures denuded 

of feathers? 

Because, by this pro- 
vision these parts are pre- 
vented from being ren- 
dered foul by the carrion 
with which they come in 
contact when the vulture 
is glutting itself with 
food. Instinct also guides 
the vulture to frequently 
cleanse its plumage. 

658. Why does the vulture, whose food is only met 
xvith upon the ground, soar to such a height as to he lost 
to vierv? 

The prey of this bird being offal, or carrion, it is of 
necessity sparsely and widely scattered. The high flight of 
the vulture, joined with its wondrous powers of scent and 
vision, enable it to take in a very xoide extent of country, 
and the more readily to obtain the object of its search. 

659. It rises higher and higher till its enormous bulk is lost to 
human view, but though beyond the sphere of man's vision the telescopic 
eye of the bird is at work. The moment any animal sinks to earth, in 
death, the distant vulture detects it. When the hunter brings down some 
large quadruped beyond his powers to remove, and leaves it to obtain 
assistance, on his return, however speedy, he finds it surrounded with 
a band of vultures, where not one was to be seen a quarter of an hour 
before. 

660. Why is the sarcoramphus, or k m § vulture* so 
called ? 

From the circumstance frequently observed by natural- 
ists, that all other species of vultures defer to it, giving it 




220 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Truth, which itself is light, does darkness shun, 
And the true eaglet safely dares the sun." — Dryden. 

the preference; and, in the case where a number of them 
have alighted upon a carcase, standing quietly by until "his 
majesty" has gorged himself. 

661. This is particularly related by Mr. Edwards in his "Voyage 
up the Amazon." That traveler accounts for the fact by stating that 
the king vulture is greatly superior to every other species, both in strength 
and courage. It has a less repulsive appearance, and when caught has 
been tamed and domesticated. 

662. Why is the eagle denominated the king of birds? 
Because it not only possesses great size, strength, and 

courage, but is in the habit of soaring to a great height in 
the sky; and of frequenting localities which have a great 
deal of wild grandeur and sublimity about them. 

663. Why have flying eagles little power of attacking 
prey that lie immediately under them? 

Because the eagle cannot drop perpendicularly upon 
its prey, but always does so in an oblique curve, by means 
of which it both delivers its whole impetus upon the prey, 
and prevents unpleasant collision with the ground. 

' 664. The following description of the white-headed eagle is given 
by Audubon, the celebrated naturalist: — "The eagle is seen perched, in an 
erect attitude, on the highest summit of the tallest tree, by the margin 
of the broad stream; his glistening but stern eye looks over the vast 
expanse. He listens attentively to every sound that comes to his quick 
ear from afar, glancing now and then on the earth beneath, lest even 
the light tread of the fawn should pass unheard; his mate is perched on 
the opposite side, and should all be tranquil and silent, warns him by 
a cry to continue patient. At this well-known call the male partly opens 
his broad wings, inclines his body a little downwards, and answers to 
her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac. The next moment 
he resumes his erect attitude, and again all around is silent. Ducks 
of many species, the teal, the widgeon, the mallard, and others, are seen 
passing with great rapidity, and following the course of the current; but 
the eagle heeds them not; they are at that time beneath his notice. The 
next moment, however, the wild, trumpet-like sound of a yet distant, 
but approaching swan is heard. A shriek from the female eagle comes 
across the stream, for she is as fully alert as her mate. The latter sud- 
denly shakes the whole of his body, and with a few touches of his bill, 
aided by the action of his cuticular muscles, arranges his plumage in an 
instant. The snow-white bird is now in sight, her long neck is stretched 
forward; her eye is on the watch, vigilant as that of her enemy; her 
large wings seem with difficulty to support the weight of her body, 
although they flap incessantly. So irksome do her exertions seem, that 
her very legs are spread beneath her tail to aid her in her flight. She 
approaches, however. The eagle has marked her for his prey. As the 
•wan is passing the dreaded pair, the male bird starts from his perch, 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 221 

— "We think the eagle-winged pride 
Of sky-aspiring and ambitious thoughts, 
With rival-hating envy, set you on 
To wake our peace." — Shakspere. 

in full preparation for the chase, with an awful scream, that to the 
swan's ear brings more terror than the report of a large duck-gun. 

"Now is the moment to witness the display of the eagle's powers. 
He glides through the air like a falling star, and, like a flash of lightning, 
comes upon the timorous quarry, which now, in agony and despair, seeks, 
by various manoeuvers, to elude the grasp of his cruel talons. It mounts, 
doubles, and would willingly plunge into the stream, were it not pre- 
vented by the eagle, which, long possessed of the knowledge that by such 
a stratagem the swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the 
air by striking it with his talons from 'beneath. The hope of escape is 
soon given up by the swan. It has already become much weakened, and 
its strength fails at the sight of the courage and swiftness of its antag- 
onist. Its last gasp is about to escape, when the ferocious eagle strikes 
with his talons the underside of its wing, and with irresistible power 
forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the nearest shore. 

"It is then that the cruel spirit of this dreaded enemy of the feath- 
ered race may be seen; whilst exulting over his prey, he for the first time 
breathes with ease. He presses down his powerful feet, and drives his 
sharp claws deeper than ever into the heart of the dying swan. He 
shrieks with delight as he feels the last convulsions of his prey, which 
has now sunk under his unceasing efforts to render death as painfully felt 
as it can possibly be. The female has watched every movement of her 
mate; and if she did not assist him in capturing the swan, it was not 
from want of will, but merely that she felt full assurance that the power 
and courage of her lord were quite sufficient for the deed. She now sails 
to the spot where he eagerly waits her, and, when she has arrived, 
they together turn the breast of the luckless swan upwards, and fill 
themselves with gore." 

665. Why are an eagle and a fish sometimes found 
dead, and tightly fastened together on the seashore? 

Because the bird on these occasions has struck its talons 
with such force into its prey that it cannot extricate them; 
and the weight of the fish proving too heavy, the eagle 
is dragged down under the waves of the sea, and thus 
drowned. 

666. Why are the eyes of eagles furnished with nic- 
tating membranes? 

Because sight is the chief sense upon which eagles 
depend for their supply of food; and in order to retain 
this organ as perfect as possible, nature has accommodated 
it with this provision, which not only tends to keep the eyes 
clean, but also shields them from strong light when in 
sunny altitudes, and renders them more sensitive of that 
reflected from below. 






222 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Eye-taught how thou dost me deliver 
My endlesse aid and comfort-giver." — Sir P. Sidney. 



667. The nictating membrane, which has already been repeatedly men- 
tioned, is a most curious apparatus, with which animals of very opposite 
natures are endowed, but all of which have their eyes liable to certain 
conditions that render the protection afforded by this curious organ 
absolutely essential. The organ consists of a thin semi-transparent mem- 
brane, which, when at rest, lies in the inner corner of the eye, folded up 
like a drawn curtain. By the combined action of two muscles, it is 
capable of being drawn out, so as to cover the whole front of the eye-ball, 
like a curtain and its own elasticity restores it to the corner in which 
it previously rested. The action of this* beautiful membrane is very 
instantaneous. Wherever there are zoological gardens, it may be observed 
with great effect in the eye of the Great South American eagle. 

This membrane is also found in the eyes of most quadrupeds, birds, 
and fishes, but its development and use are beautifully proportioned to 
the necessities of each animal. It is largely developed, as already stated, 
in those birds of prey which seek sunny altitudes, and are said to "gaze 
at the sun." When thus apparently gazing upward from their rocky 
heights, the membrane is probably drawn, to modify the force of the 
intense rays. 

It is found, also, in the camel and the ostrich, because those ani- 
mals, being frequenters of the sandy deserts, are liable to have their eyes 
injured by clouds of sand. 

Many animals that obtain their food by pushing their heads among 
branches of trees, bushes, rushes, and grass, are also provided with it. 

It is also found in fishes, which, having no eye-lids, because moisture 
is abundantly supplied to their eyes by the element in which they live, yet 
need an occasional protection from sea-clouds of sand, and drifting marine 
vegetation; and also from excess of light, when they approach the surface, 
quitting the depths where the light is greatly modified. 

Man has no such membrane, because he has no occasion to thrust 
his head into places which endanger his eye; and when, in pursuit of 
sport, he enters the woods and jungles, he is able, by the momentary 
application of his hands, to guard his eyes from injury. 

668. Why do eagles drive away their young? 
Because, as these birds subsist by prey, they would 

soon produce a famine among their race did many of 
them dwell in the same district. Therefore, the old birds 
drive away their young at a certain age from their boun- 
daries. 

669. Why are the wings of eagles broad, and hollow 
in their under surfaces? 

Because the eagle, when in search of its prey, floats 
in the air until its keen eye discovers that of which it is in 
quest; by this peculiarity of structure, therefore, the wings 
can take a more powerful hold on the air> ,and the whole 
body is enabled to float with little labor. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 223 

"With wingy speed outstrip the eastern wind, 
And leave the breezes of the morn behind." — Addison. 



670. Why are the wings of the eagle, though powerful, 
shorter than those of the falcon, both being birds of prey? 

Because falcons catch their prey while on the wing, 
and therefore have the faculty of rapid and uninterrupted 
flight; but the eagle strikes its victim to the ground, or 
the waters, and afterwards rises with it, thus requiring 
strength in a greater degree than rapidity. 

671. Why, in the eye of the falcon, crane, and other 
birds of piercing sight, has the flattened optic nerve one of 
its branches folded into numerous plaits? 

By this arrangement, the extent of surface is consider- 
ably augmented, and the powers of vision proportionally 
increased. 

672. Why are the eyes of birds and animals who seek 
their prey by night, or in the dark, larger than those of 
other animals? 

Because the large eye of the nocturnal animal admitting 
more light, and taking in a wider field of view than a small 
one, enables the animal to find the object of its search 
more readily. 

673. Animals that depend chiefly upon the eye, and especially if 
they be feeders in the night, or in places to which little light can come, 
invariably have the eyes very large. This is the case with owls, and 
other nocturnal birds. The same law is observed even in connection with 
the inhabitants of the sea. The surface fishes usually have the eyes 
small ; and they get gradually larger, till, when we come to those which 
inhabit the depths, and yet are active, feeding upon other Ashes, their 
eyes are very large — of which we have an example in the star-gazers. 

674. Why are the eyes of nocturnal birds placed 
nearer to each other than the eyes of birds which fly by day? 

Because, with nocturnal birds, the design is that they 
should have the light concentrated in front of them, in 
order that they may avoid flying against obstacles, which, 
under a different arrangement, they would inevitably do 
in the darkness of the night. 

But in birds that fly by day, their range being of greater 
extent, it is intended to render their vision effective over 



224 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"It was the owl that shriek'd, the fatal bellman, which gives the stern'st 
good night." — Shakspere. 



as great an area as possible, that they may command the 
expanse around them. 

675. Why has the eye of the owl and other nocturnal 
birds a shining substance deposited at the bottom of the 
eyeball? 

Because this substance, by reflecting the rays of light, 
endows the eye with power to distinguish objects in the 
dark. 

676. Why are owls enabled to turn their heads round 
in almost a complete circle without moving their bodies? 

The owl has been gifted with this capability in order 
to compensate for the absence of motion in the eye, the 
globe of which is immoveably fixed in its socket by a strong 
elastic hard cartilaginous case, in form of a truncated cone. 

677. Why is the head of the owl so disproportionately 
large? 

This is partly due to the looseness of the plumage by 
which it is covered and is further caused by the existence, 
between the inner and outer tables (or bony layers) of the 
skull, of a number of large cells, which communicate with 
the organ of hearing, and render that sense more acute. 

678. We find in owls an external ear, or conch, which exists in no 
other birds; this is concealed by the feathers, which are arranged in a 
sort of hollow cone around it, and, in some species, it is covered with a 
sort of lid, which the bird has the power of opening or closing at pleasure. 

679. Why do owls possess feeble powers of flight? 
Because they are not intended to obtain their prey by 

swiftness of pursuit, but by the stealthiness of their ap- 
proach; and the remarkable powers of other functions are 
therefore counterbalanced by the comparative incapacity 
of this particular one. 

680. From the nature of their food, which is chiefly the different 
species of mice ana* other small and destructive quadrupeds, of which 
they capture vast numbers, owls may be regarded as the most serviceable 
of wild birds ; and those species which are of the greatest use are so 
far from timid or retiring in their manner, that they resort to farm-yards, 
barns, and other places, and perform their services even in spite of the 
persecutions which they meet with from the thoughtless. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 225 

"Ye solemn warblers of the gloomy night, 

That rest in lightning — blasted oaks the day, 
Thro' the black mantles take your slow-pac'd flight, 

Rending the silent wood with shrieking lay." — Chatterton. 

681. Why is the plumage of nocturnal birds of prey 
tapered off to a fine and soft point? 

Because this structure enables them to glide noiselessly 
through the airland even among the leaves and sprays of 
the thick forests, without disturbing their prey. 

682. Why are the wings of the serpent-eater, or secre- 
tary bird, tipped with hard points? 

Because in attacking serpents, it covers its breast with 
one wing as a shield, to protect itself from the bite of the 
reptile, and strikes at his victim with the other — the two 
wings thus acting as a shield and spear. Then, after 
breaking the cranium with its beak, the bird devours the 
serpent. This is the manner in which large and venomous 
serpents are killed; but the bird frequently swallows non- 
venomous snakes alive. 

683. The secretary bird destroys serpents, rats, and vermin, and 
is on that account much esteemed in the southern parts of Africa, which 
abounds with venomous serpents, snakes, scorpions, and noxious reptiles, 
also with lizards of many descriptions; the land-tortoise, gryllae, or locusts, 
in variety, abundance, and depredation equalling their destructive hosts in 
other countries. Barrow relates a very curious circumstance respecting 
living serpents in the stomach of one of these birds after death. An 
English gentleman, who held an official situation at the Cape, being out 
on a shooting party, killed a secretary bird, which he carried home with 
the intention of having an accurate drawing made from it. He threw 
it on the floor of the balcony near the house, when, after it had remained 
some time, and been examined and tossed about, one of the company 
observed a large snake pushing open the beak, out of which he speedily 
crawled in perfect vigor, and free from any injury. In the supposition 
that others might be in the stomach, the bird was suspended by the legs, 
and presently a second made its appearance, as large and as lively as the 
first. The bird was afterwards opened, when the stomach was found to 
contain seven dead snakes, with a half-digested mass of lizards, scorpions, 
•colopendrse, centipedes, and beetles. 

ORDER II. — INCESSORES. 

684. Why are the incessores so named? 

From their classification as perching birds: the word 
incessores being derived from insideo^to lie in ambush; indi- 
cating that the proper habitat of the order, with its sub- 
orders, is a bush or tree. 



226 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Better's the place, though homely and obscure, 
Where we repose in safety and secure 
Than where great birds with lordly talons seize, 
Not what they ought, but what their fancies please."— Drayton. 



685. They are also called passeres or passerine birds, from passer, 
"a sparrow," to which bird the greater number oi incessores bear a strong 
resemblance. In all the true incessorial birds, the toes are three before 
and one behind. The adaptation of the foot to grasping or perching is 
evident from the situation of the hinder toe, which is invariably placed 
on the same level with those in fronts and by which they are distinguished 
from the rasores (scrapers) and grallatores (waders). The toes are 
slender, flexible, and of moderate length ; of which the foot of the canary 
affords a very good example. The incessores are much on the wing; their 
legs are therefore much less developed than those organs. The male bird 
surpasses the female in size, plumage, and song; they live in pairs, and 
construct their nests in bushes, trees, etc., with wonderful art. 

\ 8> Ws$u\ The * eet °* hirds present 

• -* v«fe!A very distinctive marks for ob- 

servation. In most species the 
toes are four in number, and 
in the majority of these three 
are directed forward, and one 
turned back. This is the case 
with the eagle, 1, and falcon, 
2; the toes in these and other 
birds - of prey being pointed 
with long, curved, and sharp 
talons. The woodpecker has 
two forward and two backward 
toes, 3; so also has the parrot. 
The night-jar has three forward 
toes, one of which is extended 
to a considerable length, 4. 
The swift has all toes forward, 
5; it clings with them to walls 
and cliffs. Larks have the 
backward claw long and slender, 
6. The ostrich has only two 
toes 7; the co-sowary has three, 

all in front. Domestio fowls, and others of the same family, have four 

toes, and a spur. 

The order INCESSORES is by many naturalists divided 
into five sub-orders: 1. Dentirostres; 2. Fissirostres; 3. 
Conirostres; 4. Tenuirostres; 5. Syndactyli. 

Sub~order 1 . — Dentirostres. 

686. Why is -the first sub-order named dentirostres? 

Dentirostres signifies tooth-billed: from dens, a "tooth/* 
and rostrum, a "beak;" this tribe of birds being characn 
terized by having a notch and tooth-like process on each 
side of the margin of the upper mandible. This renders 
them capable of attacking other birds; and they are ac- 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 227 

" 'Let's meete,' quoth Echo mockingly: 
Which, hearing, he with speed, 
(Believed that his shadow was 
A nymph, and spake indeed)." — Warner. 

cordingly predacious. The shrike, or butcher-bird, is the 
most formidable specimen of the sub-order. 

687. Why is the great gray shrike called the sentinel? 
It was thus named by Linneus, from its habit of sitting 

like a sentry in an unconcealed manner near its nest, either 
watching for its prey or on the alert against danger. 

688. The shrike, or butcher bird, as it is frequently called, is gen- 
erally dreaded by the lesser birds. They, however, occasionally unite 
against it, and drive it by clamor and mobbing from a cherished neigh- 
borhood. But although a predatory bird, it has good qualities; it is 
fond of its young, in whose defense it has been known to attack the 
hawk, and even the eagle. 

689. Why is the shrike called the "butcher-bird" ? 
This bird has the singular habit of sticking the remains 

of its prey, and sometimes the entire prey, upon the twigs 
of shrubs in the hedges. His reason for doing so has given 
rise to various conjectures, the most probable of which is, 
that it is for the purpose of attracting other prey; for when 
the trophies of its previous capture are thus exhibited upon 
the hedge, the shrike itself may often be observed beating 
about until some smaller bird comes to peck at the bait; 
and then the shrike drops down and preys &p©n the bird 
thus ensnared. 

690. Why is the mocking-bird so called? 

Because it can imitate with the greatest ease and fidelity 
not only the songs of other birds, but the sounds and cries 
of animals and the barking of a dog, the mewing of a cat, 
etc. It even carries its imitative powers to inanimate ob- 
jects, such as the grating of a grindstone, and the rushing 
of a torrent of water. 

691. The mocking-bird loses little of the power and energy of his 
song by confinement. In his domesticated state, when he commences his 
career of song, it is impossible to stand by uninterested. He whistles 
for the dog; Caesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet his master. 
He squeaks out like a hurt chicken, and the hen hurries about with 
hanging wings and bristled feathers, clucking to protect its injured brood. 
The barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking of a passing 
wheelbarrow, follow with great truth and rapidity. He repeats the tune 



228 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"More happy! laid where trees with trees entwin'd 
In bowery arches tremble to the wind, 
With innocence and shade like Adam blest, 
While a new Eden opens in the breast." — Broome. 



taught him by his master, though of considerable length, fully and faith- 
fully. He runs over the quaverings of the canary, and the clear whistling 
of the Virginia nightingale or red-bird, with such superior execution and 
effect, that the mortified songsters feel their own inferiority, and become 
altogether silent; while he seems to triumph in their defeat by redoubling 
his exertions. 

This excessive fondness for variety, however, in the opinion of some, 
injures his song. His elevated imitations of the brown thrush are fre- 
quently interrupted by the crowing of cocks; and the warblings of the 
blue-bird, which he exquisitely manages, are mingled with the screaming 
of swallows or the cackling of hens ; amidst the simple melody of the 
robin we are suddenly surprised by the shrill reiterations of the whip- 
poor-will; while the notes of the kildeer, the blue jay, martin, baltimore, 
and twenty others, succeed with such imposing reality, that we look 
around for the originals, and discover with astonishment that the sole 
performer in this singular concert is the admirable bird now before us. 
During this exhibition of his powers he spreads his wings, expands his 
tail, and throws himself around the cage in all the ecstasy of enthusiasm, 
seeming not only to sing, but to dance, keeping time to the measure of 
his own music. Both in his native and domesticated state, during the 
solemn stillness of night, as soon as the moon rises in silent majesty, 
he begins his delightful solo; and serenades us the livelong night with 
a full display of his vocal powers, making the whole neighborhood ring 
with his inimitable melody. 

692. Why is the bower-bird so called? 

From a singular habit which it has of forming for itself 
and its immediate associates of the same species a botver- 
like structure, for the purpose of a playing ground, or 
place of assembly. 

693. One of the extraordinary buildings of the bower-bird is thus 
described by Mr. Gould in his "Birds of Australia": — 

"The bower is usually placed under the shelter of the branches of 
some overhanging tree in the most retired part of the forest; the base 
consists of an extensive and rather convex platform of sticks firmly inter- 
woven, on the center of which the bower itself is built; this, like the 
platform on which it is placed, and with which it is interwoven, is formed 
of sticks and twigs, but of a more tender and flexible description; the 
tips of the twigs being so arranged as to curve inwards, and nearly 
meet at the top. In the interior of the bower the materials are so placed 
that the forks of the twigs are always presented outwards, by which 
arrangement not the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the 
birds. The bower is used as a place of resort for many individuals of 
both sexes, which, when there assembled, run through and around it 
in a sportive and playful manner, and that so frequently that it is seldom 
entirely deserted." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 229 

"Some to the holly hedge 
Nestling repair, and to the thicket some; 
Some to the rude protection of the thorn 
Commit their feeble offspring." — Thomson. 

694. Why is the cat-bird so named? 

From its voice, which closely resembles at times the 
mewing of a young cat. 

695. Wilson the American ornithologist, says : — "In spring and sum- 
mer, on approaching thickets, or brambles, the first salution you receive 
is from the cat-bird; and a stranger unacquainted with its note would 
instantly conclude that some vagrant orphan kitten had got bewildered 
among the briars, and wanted assistance; so exactly does the call of the 
bird resemble the voice of that animal." Other circumstances lend a 
claim to the title. The cat-bird is more familiar with man than any other 
of the passerine order: building its nest in gardens, and courting the 
familiarity of its owner, whom he salutes as he approaches. 

696. Why is the tailor-bird so named? 
From a remarkable habit of serving leaves 

together with threads or vegetable fibers in the 
construction of its nest. 



697. When the tailor-bird has selected a branch for 
the site of its nest, it procures a dead leaf, which it sews 
on to one still pendent and living; thus a pocket or bag 
is made, within which its nest is arranged. The thread 
used by the tailor-bird has been sometimes found actually 
knotted at the end. Colonel Sykes has described the nest 
of an Indian variety of this bird with great minuteness. 
He states that the nest thus secured is safe from the 
depredations of reptiles and monkeys. 



698. Why does the rvren make several nests, and then 
leave them when nearly finished, completing and using 
only one ? 

It has been supposed by some that these are the work 
of the male bird during the incubation of the female, who 
labors thus for the sake of occupation. 

Other naturalists conjecture that these are deceptive 
nests, calculated to lead to the supposition that the birds 
have accomplished their task and retired; and, therefore, 
that further search is useless. 




230 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Among the dwellings framed by birds 

In field or forest with nice care, 
Is none that with the little wren's 

In snugness may compare." — Wordsworth. 




699. Why is the material composing the exterior of the 
wrens nest varied according to the color of the substance 
against which the nest is built? 

Because by this means the nest 
is rendered undistinguishable from the 
surrounding objects, and thus best 
answers the purposes of concealment. 
If the nest is placed amongst ivy, it is 
usually constructed of green moss; but 
if erected contiguous to some light- 
colored branches, it will then be 
formed of gray lichens. 

700. Beautiful and elaborate is the structure of this tenement, which 
is generally placed in the middle of a bush, whose whole contracted stems 
and branches are covered with tufts of many-colored lichens. To these 
branches it is not only so assimilated as to seem of natural growth, but 
is so firmly connected as to render its disengagement impossible, unless by 
destroying its form and aspect. To obtain it perfect, the branches must 
be cut away, with the nest undisturbed. Other sites are occasionally 
chosen, but in every instance the nest is so artfully hidden as to elude 
a casual glance. 

The art of concocting nests so as to protect them from depredation 
appears to be perfectly well understood by some species of birds. No 

British bird conceals its nest more 
effectually than the water ouzel, a 
bird common along our trout 
streams, especially where they wind 
through rock-girt dales and glens. 
The nest of this bird may be some- 
times discovered in the fissure of a 
low jutting crag, or block of stone, 
projecting over the rushing and 
bubbling current, sometimes in a 
crevice on the face of a rock, over 
which tumbles a cascade, the spray 
throwing a veil around the spot; 
sometimes between the rude stores 
of a ruined bridge, or of a tenant- 
less and dilapidated water-mill long 
since deserted. Wherever it is sit- 
uated, the nest blends undistinguishably with the delicate minute ferns, 
the moss and lichen, which fill up every chink, peep from every fissure, 
and give a picturesque tone of mingled tints to the humid face of the 
gray limestone. The nest itself is of a large size, and of a domed 
figure, with a small aperture on its side. This aperture, from the nature 
of the materials of which the structure is composed, yields to the 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 231 

"Half afraid, the robin first 
Against the window beats; then brisk, alights 
On the warm hearth; then hopping o'er the floor, 
Eyes all the smiling family askance." — Thomson. 



passage of the bird, and then closes so as to be scarcely discernable. 
Externally, the nest consists of interwoven mosses and lichens, having 
an internal lining of dried vegetable fibers. Of a similar character as 
to details, but differing in its site, is the nest of the long-tfliled titmouse. 

701. Why is the English redbreast a solitary bird? 

Because, not being migratory, but remaining in the 
same neighborhoods the whole year round, an instinct 
teaches it that a sufficient supply of food is better secured 
by individual than by gregarious search. 



702. The redbreast is very attentive to its mate and rising brood, 

but in order, it would seem, to enforce the character of separativeness 

upon its species, lives in a constant state of hostility with its own 

tribe. The ancient writers were aware of this peculiarity of the redbreast, 
hence the line — 

"A bush contains but one robin." 



703. Why is the English robin the latest bird in re- 
tiring in the evening? 

Because it possesses large strong eyes, which adapt 
themselves to the weakest rays of light. This bird lives 
partly upon worms, and is, therefore, enabled to catch 
those that venture forth at dusk. 

704. Why are the English robins called autumnal 
songsters, although they sing throughout all the year? 

Because in the spring and summer, when birds gen- 
erally warble, the voice of the robin is drowned in the 
general chorus, but in the autumn, when most birds have 
ceased to sing, the song of the robin becomes more remark- 
able. Besides, many of the robins that sing in the autumn 
are the male redbreasts of the same year, which increase the 
number of warblers.* 

* White's "Selbourne," 



232 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The thrush 
And woodlark, o'er the kind-contending throng 
Superior heard, run thro' the sweetest length of notes." 

Thomson. 



705. Why has the wren been associated in nursery 
literature .with the English redbreast? 

The habits of the wren being very similar to those of the 
robin, its anti-migratory character, its familiar bearing to- 
wards man, and particularly its practice of paying him an 
annual winter visit, may have led to this association. 

706. The tiny fairy-like form of the wren would also, with children, 
render it an appropriate consort for the smart vivacious "robin." The 
loves and woes of the latter in connection with "jenny wren" are, how- 
ever, too precious a legacy for the mind of childhood for science rudely 
to interfere with. 

707. Why do wagtails and other birds frequently con- 
gregate about the feet of cows when those animals are 
feeding in moist low pastures ? 

They do this for the purpose of availing themselves 
of the flies which settle on the animals' legs, and also to 
pick up the worms and larvae that are roused by the tramp- 
ling of the cows feet 

708. Why do missel thrushes at times prefer building 
their nests near houses and in frequented garden walks ? 

Because the magpies destroy the broods of missel 
thrushes whenever they can make their way to them, so 
that the latter build in the neighborhood of frequented places 
by way of protection. The favorite haunt of the missel 
thrush is an orchard, and orchards are generally in the 
neighborhood of humarr habitations, and of these magpies 
are shy. 

709. How is the intelligence of the robin manifested 
by its manner of procuring food? 

When a robin settles upon a lawn moistened with dew 
or rain, he at first stands motionless, as if undetermined how 
he shall proceed. Suddenly he bends his head on one side, 
as if in the act of listening, his beak almost touches the 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 233 

"Who but the swallow triumphs now alone? 
The canopy of heaven is all her own : 
Her youthful offspring to their haunts repair, 
And glide along in glades, and skim in air." — Dryden. 

ground, and he draws back his head as if to make a deter- 
mined peck. 

Again he pauses and listens; hops, perhaps, once or 
twice, scarcely moving his position, and pecks smartly on 
the sod, then once more stands motionless. 

After a moment's pause, appearing to have ascertained 
that all is right, he pecks away assiduously, and soon draws 
forth a worm, which his keen sense of hearing had informed 
him was not far off, and which his hops and previous peck- 
ings had driven to the surface to escape the approach of 
what the worm apprehended, from the manner of the peck- 
ing, was an under-ground enemy. 

710. Why have the thrush, the golden-crested wren, and 
some other birds the front toes fastened by a thin skin in 
contradistinction, birds which have their toes quite separated 
from each other? 

Because the birds named rest chiefly upon light bushes, 
and this union of the two toes gives the foot a stronger 
foundation for clasping the slender twigs than loose toes 
could do. 

Sub-order II. — Fissirostres. 

71 1. Why are the fissirostres so designated? 

Because these birds are distinguished by the wideness 
of their gape, hence they are called gapers; the word is 
derived from findo, to "divide," and rostrum, a "beak." 
The swallow is the type of the species, hence its name. 

712. Why are swifts, swallows, and martins appointed 
to their different ranges of elevation when on the wing? 

The intention is, doubtless, to clear the air in some 
degree of its over-abundance of living swarms. Very high 
in the atmosphere, the fewest flies are to be found: there 
the rapid swift is stationed. The chimney swallows take 
a lower region, and fly more slowly, for in their appointed 



234 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The breezy call of incense breathing morn. 

The swallow twittering from the straw-built shed, 
The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, 

No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." — Gray. 

track there are more insects to be met with. Trie house 
martin, flying slower still, catches those insects which, except 
when rain is near, move along at a height of from fifteen 
to forty feet above the ground. The sand martin has his 
post still lower down, for he usually skims after gnats and 
other flies just over low flat grounds. 

Thus, each bird accomplishing its work at a different 
altitude, their united efforts clear the air of insects which 
would otherwise be injurious to vegetation, and annoying 
to animals. 

713. Why do the habits of swallows peculiarly adapt 
those birds to migration? 

Because their exercise 
renders long flights endur- 
able; and the capability of 
sustaining themselves in the 
air for fourteen or sixteen 
hours together in search of 
food, renders these distant 
journeys less fatiguing than 
they would be to birds of 
inactive habits. 

714. Why are the holes made by swallows nearly as 
circular as though they had been planned with a pair of 
compasses ? 

Because, when the swallow is constructing its nest, it 
perches on the circumference with its claws, and works with 
its bill from the center outwards; a radius is thus formed 
by a part of the bird's body, which is subject to little varia- 
tion. 

715. Why do the mandibles of swallows open further 
back than in most other birds? 

Because, with this bird, the food is caught when flying, 
which requires a peculiar construction of the mouth, pro- 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



235 



"With these the martin readily concurred, 
A church begot, and church-believing bird; 
Of little body, but of lofty mind. 
Round belly'd for a dignity design'd." — Dryden. 




ducing a large gape, in which the insects are caught, as in 
a net. 

716. Hotd is a shallow enabled to build its nest on a 
perpendicular wall where there is no projection underneath ? 

The bird partly clings 
with its claws, and partly 
supports itself by strongly 
inclining its tail against the 
Wall, making that a fulcrum, 
and, thus steadied, it works, 
and plasters the materials into 
the face of the brick or 
stone. 

7 1 7. Why do martins 
and swallows prefer to build 
their nests near to and within the habitations of man? 

These tribes, living almost entirely upon insects, it is 
most probable that such localities afford them, during their 
summer residence, the .most abundant supply of food. 

718. Doubtless birds understand who are their friends; the swallows, 
swifts, and martins have ever been favored by man. Even the savage 
Indian welcomes them, and provides a receptacle for their nests. The 
Ghectaws and Chicasaws cut off all the top branches from a sapling 
near their cabins, leaving the prongs a foot or two in length, on each 
of which they hang a guard or calabosh, properly hollowed out, for their 
convenience; and the negroes upon the banks of the Mississippi provide 
similarly for them. The reason why swallows and martins have always 
been protected by man, is probably because they are inveterate foes to 
crows, hawks, and eagles. Although so small in size, they vigorously 
attack these depredators, and seldom fail to come off victorious. Of 
course, the swallow is moved to this degree of combativeness in defense 
of its nest and brood; but, as a result, he, and his friend the martin, 
have been from time immemorial recognized as excellent guardians of 
the poultry yard. 

719. Why is the esculent swallow so called? 
Because both the bird and its nest form a favorite 

food in Java, Japan, and China. 



236 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The swift actually performs what has been in these enlightened times 

disproved of the bird of Paradise; except the small time it 

takes in sleeping, and what it devotes to incubation, every 

other action is done on the wing." — Penant. 



720. The edible birds' nest of the extreme east of Asia have given 
rise to much speculation, and their composition is still a matter of 
doubt. They are found attached to the sides of cliffs, and the roofs of 
caverns opening upon the sea-coasts. But whether their substance is 
derived from the gastric glands of the swallows, or collected by the 
latter from the sea-shore, or elsewhere, it is impossible to say — author- 
ities being equally divided upon the point. In outward appearance, the 
esculent swallow's nest resembles that of the chimney swallow, being 
concave, shallow, and lined with feathers; but the crust, or shell, 
instead of being made of clay is something in appearance like the fine 
manna of commerce, or isinglass. Fine filaments appear to be cemented 
together by a transparent viscous matter, not unlike what is left by the 
sea upon stones alternately covered by the tide, or those gelatinous 
animal substances found floating upon every coast.* 

About twenty-seven thousand pounds weight are annually exported 
from Java, and about thirty thousand tons of Chinese shipping are en- 
gaged in the traffic. The danger attendant upon the collecting of the 
nests in the awful caverns is described as being imminent in the extreme. 

721. Why does the swift rarely alight on level ground? 
Because, owing to the extreme shortness of the feet, 

and the disproportionate length of the wings, the bird 
cannot rise from a flat surface, since its body is not suffi- 
ciently elevated to admit of the downward stroke of the 
wings. Whenever the swift does alight, therefore, it is 
always in such places as present a brink or declivity, from 
the edge of which it can launch itself. 

722. Hoxv do swifts, which seldom alight on the ground, 
gather the materials for their nests? 

It has been conjectured that swifts gather the materials 
by raising them as they glance along the ground, in the 
same way that they drink by skimming over the surface of 
the water. Others suppose that these birds catch the 
substances in the air a,s they are carried up by the wind. 
Whilst the more common and generally received opinion 
is, that the materials are purloined from the nests of spar- 
rows and swallows. 

723. This latter surmise is corroborated by several circumstances: 
first, the swift's nest consists of nearly the same substances as the 
sparrows; secondly, we know that swifts enter sometimes into the nests 

*Sir G. Staunton. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



237 



"Ah I would thou know'st how much it better were 
To 'bide among the simple fisher-swaines; 
No shrieking owl, no night-jar lodgeth here, 

Nor is our simple pleasure mixed with pains." — P. Fletcher. 



of small birds, which we may suppose they do for the sake of pillaging 
the materials. With regard to the moss which they employ, it is in very 
small quantity, and they may gather it with their little claws, which are 
very strong, from tree's, on which they can clamber, in the hollows of 
which they sometimes breed. Of seven nests found under the head of a 
church porch, fifteen feet from the grounrl, there were only three which 
had a regular cup-shape, and of which the materials were more or less 
interwoven, and with greater order than usual in sparrow's nests; they 
had also more moss and fewer feathers, and were in general less bulky. 
The best formed of all weighed two ounces and a half; and the largest, 
five or six times more than the smallest. 



724. Why is it said, when swallows fly high, fine 
Weather may be expected? 

Because swallows follow flies and gnats, and these 
delight in warm air; and as warm air is lighter, and 
usually moister than cold air, when the warm strata of 
air are high, there is less chance of moisture being thrown 
down from them by the mixture with cold air. 

But when the warm and moist air is close to the sur- 
face, the flies and swallows fly low, and it is almost cer- 
tain that, as the cold air flows down into it, a deposition 
of water will take pla.ce. 

725. Why is the mouth of the goat-sucker, or' night- 
jar furnished with long bristly hairs? 

These birds pursue 
their insect prey in the 
night, for which purpose 
their eyes are peculiarly 
adapted. When, how- 
ever, they have captured 
an insect, their eyes are of 
no further avail, and the 
long bristles then act as 
feelers, enabling the bird 
more securely to ensure its prey, and to prevent all possibil- 
ity of escape. 




238 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"His plumes were inky black, of vast extent; 
His hooky claws on spoil and ravine bent/' — Hoole. 



Sub-order III. — Conirostres. 

726. Why is the sub-order conirostres so termed? 
From conus, a cone, and rostrum, a beak, importing 

that birds of this sub-order have a bill more or less conical 
in shape. 

727. The Conirostres are miscellaneous feeders; but they differ so 
much in their character and habits, that no one species can be selected 
as properly descriptive of the whole tribe. The texture of their bills 
is firm, and capable of bruising hard substances — such as seeds — with 
tough coats; and also for digging or boring into the ground in quest of 
earth-insects, or of albuminous roots. 

728. Why are the heads of birds of this sab-order 
large in proportion to the size of their bodies? 

Because the muscles which move the bill are more 
powerful, and consequently larger, than in the case of 
birds which feed exclusively upon insects. 

729. Many of the conirostres are voracious, and somewhat gross in 
their feeding. They eat all manner of carrion and garbage, thus perform- 
ing a highly useful service to man; they have no great objection to 
kill any animal which they can master, especially if they find it in a 
sick or weakly condition. Some of them occasionally hawk after small 
birds on the wing, but it is not a general habit with them: they proceed 
by stealthiness and craft rather than by daring, and in general attack 
only that which they can take at a disadvantage. They are also plunder- 
ers of the nests of other birds. 

730. Hon? is the bill of the raven characterized? 
The structure of its bill is intermediate between those 

of the vultures, which feed chiefly upon carrion, and the 
woodpeckers and analogous species, which obtain their food 
by digging or thrusting into crevices in the barks of trees 
and fissures of rocks. It is inlaying and straight, and can 
inflict a severe wound by thrusting; it is slightly hooked 
at the tip, so that it can keep a firm hold, while the bird 
rips and tears by the motions of the neck; and as it is 
long, the snap of the point is very sharp, from the rapidity 
of the motion. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 239 

"And the hoarse raven on the blasted bough, 
By croaking from .the left presaged the coming Blow." — Dryden. 



731. The raven, though not very numerous in any place, and though 
dwelling in solitude, pairing for life, and not very prolific, is one of 
the most generally distributed of birds. Almost every other species has 
some country which it can claim to a considerable extent as its own; 
and even though it is migrant, and passes the different seasons in 
places some thousands of miles asunder, it returns with the season, not 
only to the same latitude, and to the same land, but often to tBe very 
same spot. The raven is no migrant, except in shifting a little with the 
seasons, as the supply of food varies, but never quitting the same district; 
and yet there is no country in which the raven is not found native. The 
margin of the desert, of the jungle, or of the forest, in the hottest 
climates, — the heights of alternate cliff and copse in temperate climates, 
or the rocks and heaths, and even the lichen-clad margins of the inhabited 
regions near the poles, are all equally the abode of the raven. Let the 
sun blaze, the wind blow, the rain pelt, or the snow drive, with ever 
so much intensity, his dusky wing, or firmly-set foot, is in its element, 
and the wreck of nature to others proves to him a season of plenty. 

732. Why is the raven termed the "herald of the 
year ? 

Because, as early as the latter part of January, if the 
weather be mild, these birds may be seen on the alert, 
looking into the state of their nests, and making other prepa- 
rations for the spring. 

733. Why is the raven commonly associated with sick- 
ness, misfortune, and other human ills? 

Because his black plumage, discordant croaking cry, 
and wild and funeral aspect, favor the superstitious feel- 
ings which arise amongst ignorant persons. 

734. It is said that the southern aborin'gines invoke the raven for 
those who are sick, mimicking his voice; and the natives of Missouri, 
assuming black as their emblem of war, decorate themselves on those 
occasions with the plumes of this dark bird. But all the knowledge of the 
future, or interest in destiny, possessed by the raven, like that of other 
inhabitants of the air, is bounded by an instinctive feeling of the changes 
which are about to happen in the atmosphere, and which he has the 
faculty of announcing by certain cries and actions produced by these 
external impressions. In the southern provinces of Sweden, as Linneus 
remarks, when the sky is serene, the raven flies very high, and utters 
a hollow sound, like the word clong, which is heard at a distance. 
Sometimes he has been seen in the midst of a thunder-storm, amid 
electrio fires which appeared to stream from his bill — a natural, though 
extraordinary phenomenon, sufficient to terrify the superstitious, and to 
stamp the harmless subjejct of it with the imaginary traits and attributes 
of a demon. 



240 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

. ! ■ — — —— ^— f 

"And the raven never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting 
On the pallid bast of Pallas, just above my chamber door; 
And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon's that is dreaming, 
And the lamp-light o'er him streaming, throws his shadow on the 
floor." — Edgar Poe. 



735. Why are ravens more social than birds of prey? 

Because the food upon which they subsist is of a pro- 
miscuous nature, and abundant in quantity, which allows 
a greater number to subsist together without being urged to 
the stern necessity of solitude or famine — a condition to 
which the true rapacious birds are always driven. 

736. Why is it erroneous to suppose that crows destroy 
grass? 

This error arises out of 
the following circumstance: In 
searching for grubs which are 
concealed in the earth, and 
which are supported by eat- 
ing the roots of the grass, the 
crow pulls at the stem of the 
grass with its bill, and when 
the grass comes up, the crow 
knows that there are under it 
insects which have destroyed its roots, and in this way 
detects them; but if the stem of grass is firm, the crow 
goes to another tufU and proceeds in the same manner. 

737. Why is the rook the earliest bird stirring in the 
morning? 

Because its principal food is worms, which feed and 
crawl upon the humid surface of the ground in the dark, 
and retire before the light of day; and, roosting higher 
than other birds, the first rays of the sun as they dart from 
the horizon, become visible to the rook. 

738. Why is the flight of rooks popularly supposed to 
portend rough or fine weather? 

Because it is proved by observation that when a gale 
of wind is blowing, or about to blow, they descend into 
valleys, and just skim over the tops of the intervening 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 241 

"Rooks unnumbered build their nest — 
Deliberate birds, and prudent all; 
Their notes, indeed, are harsh and rude, 
But they're a social multitude." — Crabbe. 

hills and trees; but when the sky is calm and clear, they 
pass through the upper air in regular and easy flight. 

739. Sometimes these birds perform an evolution usually called the 
"shooting of the rooks." When they have risen to an immense height in 
the air, so that, in appearance, they are scarcely larger than the lark, 
they suddenly descend to the ground, or to the tops of trees exactly under 
them. To effect this, they come headlong down, on pinions a little raised, 
but not expanded, in a zig-zag direction (presenting alternately their back 
and breast), through the resisting air, with a noise resembling the 
rushing of the wind; and when we consider the prodigious height of the 
rooks at the time they begin to descend, we conclude that they cannot 
effect their arrival at a spot immediately under them by any other process 
so short and rapid. 

740. Why are rooks seen to busy themselves in autumn 
about their nests 9 as though they were going to make im- 
mediate use of them, and then desert them for the winter? 

This curious proceeding probably arises from an in- 
stinctive feeling that as the nests "will be wanted" early in 
spring, a few repairs may be requisite to strengthen and 
prevent their being shattered or blown to pieces by the 
storms of winter. 

741 . Why is it said that a crow can smell gunpowder? 
Because the natural wariness in most seasons of the 

year of this bird, and the perpetual persecution which it 
has undergone from man, cause it to keep a very sharp 
look-out ; and induces it to take flight at the earliest approach 
of the gunner. 

742. The rook is a bird of great sagacity. It has been known to 
fly from a man carrying a crutch on his shoulder, and yet to endure the 
approach of the same man when he walked with a limping gait, with the 
crutch under his arm. It has also suffered the approach of a sportsman 
who put his gun under his arm, and pretended to use it as a crutch. 
We doubt the presumption that rooks can smell gunpowder, although we 
have seen, in a farm-book of considerable authority, a rag smeared with 
gunpowder recommended to scare away rooks. The moving rag may have 
the effect, without the aid of the gunpowder. 

743. In what respects are the bill and stomach of the 
rook practically adapted to each other? 

The bill is so constructed that it can lay hold of, 
and rend almost any £iW of food; and the digestive organs 
extract nutriment from a great variety of substances; the 



242 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



— "Or in a shady tree 
Nine magpies perch'd lament their alter'B state, 
And what they hear are skilful to repeat." — M a yn waring. 

stomach being intermediate between the membranous, or 
thinly-muscular kind, peculiar to the carnivorous families, 
and gizzards, or strongly-muscular organs which are pos- 
sessed by those animals that feed on hard vegetable sub- 
stances. 

744. Why is the wholesale destruction of crows, as 
generally practiced by farmers, a mistaken policy? 

Because these birds destroy an amazing number of 
grubs and injurious insects, which, to all apearance, have 
no other enemies; their singular mode of following the 
course of the plow, both in winter and spring, leaves no 
doubt of this fact. 

745. Crows are persistently destroyed, because it is believed that 
when they search after insects in newly-sown fields, they devour, also, 
the grain which they meet with in their track. This may, at least in 
part, be true ; but no positive proof can exist of such being the case. 
Certain it is, that in particular parts of America, where the crows 
were completely eradicated or driven away by incessant firing, the num- 
bers of noxious insects increased so prodigiously that the farmers, to 
their sorrow, found the remedy worse than the disease; the whole district 
agreeing to suffer the persecuted crows to return, and occupy again their 
old quarters. > 

746. Why does the structure of the magpie adapt it 

either for a tree or a ground bird? 

Because the wings are only 
of moderate length, which 
renders them suitable for tak- 
ing the air at all angles, and 
also for turning. The tail is 
also greatly developed, cap- 
able of considerable action, 
and wedge-shaped; the first 
and second properties being 
requisite in the frequent ascents 
and descents of the bird, and 
the last in avoiding the twigs 
and other obstacles which the 

bird could not have so well avoided, if the tail had been 

square at the end. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 243 

"So doth the magpie mischievously steal 
Of wealth he knows not — only to conceal." — Newman. 

i ■ 

747. Why have magpies the reputation of being thiev- 
ing birds? 

These birds possess a strong degree of curiosity in ob- 
servation, and seem to have an especial perception for 
brilliancy of color. If, for instance, there were two small 
pieces of potters' ware, of the same size, shape, and con- 
sistency, and if one piece were coarse and brown and the 
other glazed, it is almost certain that the magpie would 
carry off the glazed piece, but certainly not the other: so 
also, if a shilling and a halfpenny were left in this bird's 
way, the shilling would in all probability be carried off 
and the halfpenny left. 

This fondness for bright and shining articles tempts 
the bird to steal articles of plate, etc., hence the incident 
upon which the popular story is founded of "The Maid 
and the Magpie," and a number of other anecdotes, all 
illustrative of this thievish propensity; whilst their curious 
and observant disposition may account for their stealing 
articles which have no particularly attractive qualities to 
recommend them. 

748. Why is a magpie, when seen alone, said to fore- 
tell bad weather? 

Because magpies generally fly in company, but on the 
approach of wet or cold one remains in the nest to take 
care of the young, while the other wanders in search of 
food. 

For the same reason, a single magpie is said to be 
an unlucky omen to anglers, while ttvo prognosticate fine 
weather and good sport. 

749. Why is the crossbill furnished with a beak of 
peculiar structure? 

Because it is a bird inhabiting forests in which vast 
pine trees groxo, and living as it does upon the seeds of the 
pine, the beak with which it is furnished is best adapted 
for assisting it in obtaining supplies of food. 




244 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The sparrow, meanest of the feathered race, 
His fit companion finds in every place." — Cowper. 



750. The seeds of the pines, which, until the cone has been exposed 

to the action of the weather 
for a considerable time 
after the seeds are ripe, are 
so firmly enclosed between 
the ligneous scales as to 
prevent the bill of an ordi- 
nary bird from reaching 
them. This bill consists of 
a very powerful pair of lev- 
ers, by means of which the 
scales can be wrenched open, 
and the seeds arrived at in 
a manner the most effective. 
When the two sharp points 
are brought together, they 
can be inserted into a very 
small opening, in which, the 
instant that they begin to operate, each takes hold like a hook, and 
tends to draw itself in; thus cutting open in the direction of the face 
or plane of the scale, while by their action upon each other they press 
it open by the power of a double wedge; and by the time that the 
mandibles have crossed to their full extent, the scale is so completely 
raised that the seed can be taken from under it with the greatest ease. 
The position into which the oblique action of the bill brings the head 
enables the bird to see the seed under the scale, and while the mandibles 
keep the scale open, the tongue of the bird scoops out the seed. The 
tongue is as curious as the mandibles. It terminates in a horny gouge, 
supported by a bone, and furnished with muscles, by which it can be 
raised or depressed so as to act as an independent instrument. The motion 
of the bill divides a soft and pulpy substance with remarkable facility; 
and when the birds visit orchards, which they sometimes do in the 
autumn, they cut the apples asunder, in order to get at the pips, with 
almost as great a nicety as one would use a knife. 

751. Why are sparrows useful to vegetation? 
Because they devour myriads of insects which would 

otherwise do infinite injury; this is particularly the case 
when they have young ones, all of which are fed with 
insects and caterpillars. 

752. Why is the sparrow holder, and less fearful of 
being caught or kMed, than most other birds? 

Because its location in the neighborhood of populous 
towns and cities renders it accustomed to man, who, on 
his part, being intent on other matters, passes hourly within 
a few yards of this bird without ever giving it a thought. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



245 



"The cleft tree 
Offers its kind concealment to a few, 
Their food its insects, and its moss their nests." — Thomson. 



753. Why does the house-sparrow pertinaciously ap- 
propriate to its own use the nest of other birds? 

Because sparrows oc- 
cupy their nests at night 
throughout the year; and, 
though they are hardy birds, 
they require warm shelter 
during severe frosts, and 
therefore seize upon any con- 
venience which they can find 
best adapted to their pur- 
pose. 

754. Why is the spar- 
row comparatively late in awaking in the morning? 

Because it roosts in holes, and under the eaves of ricks, 
or sheds, where the light does not so soon enter as in open 
places. 

755. Why is the claw upon the hind toe of the lark of 
greater length than is to be found generally in other birds? 

Because the lark is a field bird, nestling on the ground, 
and deriving its food from the earth; and the peculiar 
conformation of the foot enables the bird to run on thick 
matted grass, or to rise from it, or alight on it, with much 
less inconvenience than almost any other bird. 




756. Larks are fleet runners, and they stand up for observation, with 
their heads above the cover; the head, which is generally crested, and 
has the crest erected, not being easily distinguishable from a clod. 

757. What especial use does the lark make of its 
disproportionally long claws? 

The lark makes its nest generally in grass fields, where 
ft is liable to be injured, either by cattle grazing over it, 



246 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Ye birds 
That singing up to Heav'n's gate ascend, 
Bear on your wings, and in your notes, his praise." — MlLTON. 

or by the mower. In case of alarm from these or other 
causes, the parent birds remove their eggs by means of their 
long claws, to a place of greater security. 

758. Why does the song of the sky-lark, when on the 
wing, change with its ascent and descent, and possess a 
uniform £ep only when the bird is poised in the air? 

Because the windpipe is the musical organ, and birds 
require this organ less for breathing than other animals hav- 
ing a windpipe and lungs, because of the air-cells and 
breathing tubes with which all parts of their bodies are 
furnished. 

But those different breathing organs must act with less 
freedom when the bird is making the greatest efforts in 
motion, that is, when ascending or descending; and in 
proportion as these cease to act, the trachea is the more 
required for the purposes of breathing. 

The sky-lark thus converts the atmosphere into a musical 
instrument of many stops, the song swelling as the bird 
ascends, sinking with the downward flight, and with each 
wheel in the air varying the pitch of the song. All birds 
that sing ascending or descending have similar power, but 
the sky-lark has it in a degree superior to any other. 

759. Why is the female linnet often mistaken for the 
male? 

Because, when the male bird has attracted the attention 
of his intended captor, he instantly hops into the bush 
before his plumage can be carefully noticed; and, if the 
bush is beaten, the female bird will fly out, and thus get 
credit for the song of her mate. 

760. The deception is further increased by the male ceasing his 
song and raising his alarm-call as soon as he is seen, and until he dis- 
appears in the bush, for he does not generally fly out; but the female 
does, and wiles away the enemy from the nest by a series of short flights; 



1 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. Z47 

"Behold, within the leafy shade, 
Those, speckled eggs together laid! 
On me the chance-discovered sight 
Gleamed like a vision of delight." — WORDSWORTH. 

and when the coast is clear, she again flies into the bush, chirping softly 
the note of safety, and soon after the male resumes his song. 

761. Why do goldfinches build their nests on flexible 
branches in preference to rigid ones? 

Because the young 
being thus rocked to and 
fro in the nest, are made 
accustomed to the motion 
which they will afterwards 
experience when seeking 
their food on the tops of 
tall and flexible stems. 

762. Why does the 
European titmouse suspend 
its nest over a pond or 
stream ? 
In order to preserve it from the attacks of quadrupeds 
and reptiles. 

763. What is especially remarkable in the plumage of 
the canary bird? 

Its light sulphur color, which it has exchanged for the 
gray or brown hue of its native islands. 

764. This little captive songster was introduced to Europe early io 
the 16th century, and is believed to have spread from the coast of Italy, 
where a vessel, which was bringing to Leghorn a number of these birds, 
besides merchandise, was wrecked. The climate being favorable, they 
increased; but they did not become naturalized, being entrapped by breed- 
ers for the purpose of sale. 

765. Why are birds of Paradise so called? 

In earlier ages these birds, which are peculiar in their 
structure and remarkable for the beauty and gloss of their 




248 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY, 



"Resplendent wanderer! followed with glad eyes 
Where'er her course; mysterious bird, 
To whom, by wandering fancy stirred, 
Eastern islanders have given 
A holy name — the Bird of Heaven." — Wordsworth. 



plumage, were supposed to whisk about like bright meteors 
in the equinoctial sun, without the usual attributes of wings 
or feet; and were also believed to dwell in the air, and 
live upon the nectar of those flowers which, in the climates 
where the birds are native, twine in garlands and festoons 
at the topmost branches of the trees. 



766. Why were the birds of Paradise said by the older 
naturalists to be without legs, and to remain always sus- 
pended in the air? 

These beautiful crea- 
tures frequenting only the 
neighborhood of the trop- 
ics, had, until a compara- 
tively recent date, never 
been caught and exam- 
ined. The accounts of 
them, therefore, were like 
many "travelers' tales," 
much exaggerated. This 
is partly excused and ac- 
counted for by the ex- 
treme beauty of their 
plumage and motions. 

It is certain that the birds of Paradise have legs, and 
these both large and strong ; but their flight is rapid and 
continuous; they are the swallows of the tropics; are sel- 
dom seen to alight; and, while pursuing the insects upon 
which they feed, go through a vast number of the most 
beautiful evolutions. 




767. These birds do not bear much resemblance to an ordinary bird, 
at least in any part except the bill, head, neck, and shoulders, for the 
rest of the body is hidden by supplemental feathers issuing from the 
flanks, the shoulders, or both, which feathers are so loose, light, and 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 249 

"So on he fares, and to the border comes 
Of Eden, where delicious Paradise, 
Now nearer, crowns with her enclosure green." — MlLTON. 



airy towards their points that they bear some resemblance to the tails of 

comets. Some notion of the 
general form of this species 
may be obtained from the an- 
nexed figure representing the 
golden bird of Paradise. This 
beautiful deep black species is 
a native of New Guinea, and 
is well named by the French 
sifilet, from the six slender 
feathers, three on each side of 
the head, which are webs, ex- 
cept at the end where they are 
without oval. The breast has 
a rich, gilded, changeable green 
gorget, which is very brilliant. 
The female of this species is 
destitute of the six long shafted 
feathers and the gorgeous breast 
of the male; but instead, the 

feathers on the neck and side, and under parts of the body, are of a 

very light brown color, transversely marked with rather wide deep 

brown bars. 

Birds of Paradise, which are allowed to exceed all others in beauty, 
variety, and the peculiar construction of their plumage, associate in large 
flocks in the delightful aromatic woods and groves of their native islands; 
and the inhabitants, sensible of their charms, give them the name of 
"God's birds." 

768. What remarkable utility is connected with the 
profuse plumage of birds of Paradise? 

We know too little of the habits of these birds to 
recognize all the specific purposes their singular and beau- 
tiful plumage answers; but it appears to be certain that 
they are directed to their food by the profusion of their 
feathers. 

769. This extraordinary fact has been pointed out and enlarged upon 
in a very able manner in "Partington's Cyclopaedia": — 

"We know this — the islands in which birds of Paradise are found, 
are subject to alternations of rain and drought. Further, we know that 
in tropical countries the fervent heat of the rainless period comes at 
last to have all the effect of a winter, in the suspension of animal and 
vegetable action. As one part of those countries in which they have their 
haunts becomes parched, the birds of Paradise must remove to another, 
and we shall see that the profuse feathers, besides enabling the birds 
to rise more easily and descend more softly on their shorter excursions, 
ill consequence of the bold which their countless flocculi take of the air, 



250 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Like birds, great nature's happy commoners, that haunt in woods, 

in meads, and flow'ry gardens, rifle the sweets, and taste 

the choicest fruits, vet scorn to ask the lordly 

owner's leave." — Rowe. 



assist the birds in finding their way to those other places where there is 
food for them.. 

"At those places where the earth and the upper part of the forest 
are parched, and the ardor of the unclouded sun continues to beat, there 
is a constant rarefaction of the whole mass of the atmosphere; and in 
consequence of this the winds from the more humid surfaces must blow 
towards those parched places with velocities proportional to the differ- 
ences between the one and the other. 

"When the forest which is the haunt of these birds becomes parched, 
their food lessens, and they are compelled to be more on the wing in 
search after it. But on which side soever there then happens to be a 
place more humid, and more abounding in those creatures on which they 
feed, and which on this account is better suited to them for the time, 
there is a wind which blows from that side towards the part which is 
parched and heated; and as the action of that wind upon their flocculent 
feathers turns them round on their centers of gravity like weather-cocks, 
their heads are, as they fly, turned to the wind, and against the current. 
Their feathers thus assist them in finding out the direction of those 
places where they can obtain food; and though this is more remarkable 
in the case of birds of Paradise than any other species, it is probable 
that many of the softer-feathered birds are also assisted in their tropical 
migrations by the set of the wind" 



Sub-order I V. — Tenuirostres. 

770. Why is the sub-order Tenuirostres so designated? 

From tenuis, long, and rostrum, a beak; the birds com- 
prehended within it being characterized by a long and 
slender bill. 

771. They are also by some classed as "bee-eaters," or "honey- 
suckers," the great majority deriving their subsistence both from insects 
and the nectar of plants, which they suck up by means of a long and 
filamentous tongue. The representatives of this sub-order are the nuthatch, 
the creeper, the humming-bird, the chough, and the hoopoe. They are 
clearly distinguishable from the sub-order syndactyli by having the toes 
separated from each other. 

772. Why is it essential that the bodies of humming- 
birds should be motionless in the air? 

Because the humming-bird seeks its food in the deep 
cups and tubes which protect the seeds of various plants 
within the tropics. It would be impossible for them to 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



251 



"Upon mine honor, Sir, I heard a humming, 
And that a strange one too, whiph did awake me."- 



-Shakspere. 




obtain a supply, which is only to be found in these places, 
unless they had some power of suspending their bodies; for 
if they attempted to rest on the plant, it would yield to 
their weight, and the insect would escape. 

773. Why are the humming-birds so called? 

From the sound pro- 
duced by the rapid motion 
of their wings, this name 
is universally applied; the 
species being in the coun- 
tries where they most 
abound, known as Mur- 
munes, bourdons, and 
Frou-frous, names of equiv- 
alent meaning. 

774. The velocity with which these birds glance through the air 
is so great as to elude the sight — the motion of their wings appears 
like a thin cloud of light, and when hovering before a flower they seem 
to be absolutely suspended in the air. 

775. Why does the humming-bird, when molested, fly 
at and peck the eyes of its adversary? 

An unerrng instinct has taught it that its feebleness 
can in no better way be protected than by this method of 
attack? 

776. Mr. Bullock says : "They attack the eyes of the larger birds, 
and their sharp needle-like bill is a truly formidable weapon in this 
kind of warfare. Nothing can exceed their fierceness when disturbed 
during the breeding season." An old writer, Ferdinand Ovieds, adds: 
"When they see a man climb the tree where they have their nests they 
fly at his face and strike him in the eyes, coming, going, and returning 
with such swiftness that no man would rightly believe it that had not 
seen it." 

777. Why is the nest of the humming-bird constructed 

with a view to great warmth, although within the tropics? 

Because the diminutive size of the bird renders it in- 



252 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"One part had their plumes all whyt, another hadde them al redde, and 
the thyrde hadde them of several colours." — Hall. 

capable of retaining for any length of time sufficient heat 
for the purposes of incubation, unless this provision is made. 

778. Why is so small a creature as the humming-bird 
more gorgeously plumed than any other bird? 

The probable reason is, that this brilliancy serves to 
attract around the humming-bird the insects upon which 
it partly feeds, and thus ministers to its means of sustenance : 
as we see that moths and flies are attracted by a lighted 
lamp or candle, and rush upon it to their own destruction. 

779. "I have seen the humming-bird, " says Wilson, "for half-an-hour 
at a time, darting at those little groups of insects that dance in the air 
in a fine summer evening, retiring to an adjoining twig to rest, and 
renewing the attack with a dexterity that sets all other fly-catchers at 
defiance.' 1 . 

The coloring of the plumage of birds unquestionably depends upon 
the sun, because they are gay and glossy in proportion as they are exposed 
to the action of that luminary; but the light of the sun must have a 
substance upon which it can act; and it appears to act most powerfully 
upon the firm feather which grows slowly, and, in the first instance, 
under cover. The coloration is an after process, though an obscure one, 
and one upon which it does not appear easy to get more information; but 
it has no apparent connection with the color of the egg; for the bee-eaters 
have, in one or other of. the species, all the colors of the rainbow, as 
brilliant as in the rainbow itself, and yet the eggs are white. Whether 
the bright colors are less sentient to the sun than the more sober hues 
of the birds of cold climates we are unable to tell; but the smooth 
surface and metallic luster must reflect the light, as well as decompose 
it by that refraction which shows the colors; and we find the same 
kinds of tint and gloss in the day-insects of sunny climes, and in the 
birds of the same. We may therefore conclude that the resplendent plum- 
age of these birds answers as a sort of protection against the ardor of 
the sun, just in the' same manner as the half -furry clothing of the 
northern owls protects them against the pelting sleet and the driving 
snow, or as the down upon sea-birds protects them against the action of 
the water.* 

780. Why are the feet of the creeper very long and 
powerful? 

Because by their means the bird is enabled to cling to 
the perpendicular surface of trees, and is enabled to use 
its beak with great effect in the obtaining of its food. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia," Art., <T Bee-eater." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 253 

"From purple violets and the teile they bring 
Their gather'd sweets, and rifle all the spring." — Addison. 



781. Clinging by their feet, and resting upon the stiff quills of their 
tails, they will even pass round a horizontal branch with their backs to 
the ground. This is of importance to the bird, since many of the insects 
forming its food often seek the under surface of a branch for security. 

782. Why has the nuthatch, whose habits so closely 
resemble the woodpecker, only a very short tail? 

Unlike the woodpecker, the nuthatch runs with the head 
downwards as well as upwards; and, indeed, the former 
position of the head appears to be the favorite one: it gen- 
erally alights on a branch with the head in a downward 
position, and sleeps in that posture. A long tail, therefore, 
would be useless to it, and an incumbrance. 

783. The nuthatch, in procuring its food, sometimes grasps the tree 
with his powerful feet, and turns its body upon them as upon a pivot, 
striking with its whole weight, and thus presenting with its body the 
appearance of the head of a hammer in motion. 

784. Why does the nuthatch make its nest in the de- 
cayed trunks of trees? 

In order that the young may subsist upon the insects 
that inhabit the decayed" wood that surrounds the nest. 

785. Why is the rifle-bird so called? 

From the dark tints of its plumage — a bottle-green ap- 
proaching to black — and its habit of creeping upon the 
boles of trees, after the manner of a sharpshooter. 

786. Mr. Gould, the Australian naturalist, considers the rifle-bird 
the most gorgeously-plumed of all the birds of that region. The general 
color of the male is a rich velvety black, varied with lilac ano} green. 
The female is less handsomely furnished. The rifle-bird's powers of 
flight are very limited, owing to the shortness and truncated form of the 
wing; but this structure enables it to ascend upright stems of trees pre- 
cisely after the manner of the climacteri, many of whose habits it pos- 
sesses. 

787. Why is the hoopoe so named? 

From its uttering the song or cry of hoop, hoop, hoop, 
as it sits perched by its nest, or flits along after its insect 
prey. 



254 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"That a kingfisher hanged by the bill sheweth in what quarter the 

wind is by an occult and secret propriety, converting the 

breast to that point of the horizon from whence the 

wind doth blow, is a received opinion, and very 

strange." — Brown's Vulgar Errors. 



Sub-order V. — Syndactili. 

788. Why are the birds of this group called syndactili? 
From two Greek words meaning and toe, in allusion 

to their having the external toe nearly as long as the middle 
one, and united to it, as far as the second joint. Syn~ 
dactylic means having the toes together. 

789. The bills of syndactalous birds differ considerably in their 
forms, because their food differs in kind; and this difference probably 
led Cuvier to name this division after the structure of the feet, and not 
that of the bills. 

790. What are the peculiar examples of adaptation 
in the structure of kingfishers? 

It is furnished with a long sharp bill, admirably adapted 
for transfixing fish, as with a spear; and the plumage is 
remarkably smooth, and adapted to resist the action of 
water. 



791. When watching for its prey, the kingfisher perches itself upon 

some overhanging branch, with 
its long, dagger-like bill pointed 
downwards, and its eye intent 
upon the water beneath. Sud- 
denly, it darts downwards, 
plunges headlong into the water, 
and speedily re-appears with a 
minnow or other small fish be- 
tween its mandibles. Without 
loosing its hold, it passes the 
fish through its bill until it 
is fairly grasped by the tail, 
and then destroys the life of its 
victim by smartly striking its 
head three or four times against 
a branch, after which it gulps 
its prey at one mouthful, except 
when it is bound away to the 
nest for the supply of the 
young. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 255 

"For both the boughs doe laughing blossoms beare, 
And with fresh colors deck the wanton prime. 
And eke at once the heavy trees they clime, 
Which seeme to labour under their fruite's lode." — Spenser. 



792. Why has the kingfisher remarkably) small feet? 
Because the habits of the bird are neither those of 

wading, walking, nor standing; but simply of perching, 
upon the points of small twigs that overhang the water. 
The kingfisher watches patiently, generally from a naked 
twig, and when it quits that, flies immediately to a similar 
station. 

The feet of the kingfisher, which at first appear very 
imperfect, and totally unfit for ordinary purposes, are, in 
fact, excellently adapted to the wants of the bird. 

793. Why are the bee-eaters so called? 

Because bees form a considerable part of their food, 
though they devour also wasps, hornets, and various other 
insects of comparatively long and rapid flight. 

ORDER III. SCANSORES. 

794. Why is the third order of birds termed scansores? 
The word scansores is derived from the Latin scando, 

to climb and implies that these birds live and obtain their 
food in a scaling position. 



795. Their feet are adapted for clinging to the bark of trees; and 
they ascend the stems and branches with great facility. Their food, for 
the most part, consists of insects, which they search for in the crevices 
and underneath the bark of unsound trees, or in the wood of such as 
exhibit symptoms of decay. They also occasionally eat fruit. The order 
is very extensive, comprehending the woodpecker, the cuckoo, the parrot, 
macaws, love birds, cockatoos, toucans, lories, etc. 

796. Why is the name "zygodactyli" also given by 
ornithologists tQ the scansores, of climbers? 

Because of a peculiarity in the feet; two of their toes 
being directed forwards, and two backwards. 



256 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Rap, rap, rap, rap, I hear thy knocking bill, 
Then thy strange outcry, when the woods are still." — Montgomery. 

The word zygodactyli is compounded of zygoo, "to 
join," and daktylos, a finger. 

797. Why are the supposed ravages of woodpeckers 
beneficial rather than otherwise? 

Because they bore only those trees which insects have pre- 
viously attacked, and thus diminish very considerably the 
numbers of such as are injurious to our forests. 

798. Why are the extremities of the feathers in the 
tail of the woodpecker hard and elastic like whalebone, 
and with the shaft particularly prominent? 

Because this quality in the 
bird's tail affords a prop, or ful- 
crum, as it rests against a tree; 
and no other contrivance could 
enable the bird to maintain its 
position when throwing back its 
head to give due force to the 
bill in hammering at the bark of 
the tree. 

799. Why is the bill of the parrot so thick and pow- 
erful? 

This member, so unlike that of other frugivorous birds, 
is admirably calculated for the principal offices it has to 
perform, viz., breaking the shells and stones of the hard- 
est fruits and seeds, and as a strong organ of prehension 
and support when climbing or moving from one position 
to another. 

800. In their native woods, the movements of the parrot tribe are 
marked by an ease and gracefulness we never see exhibited in a state 
of confinement. They climb about the branches in every direction, and 
suspend themselves from them in every possible attitude, in all which 
movements they are greatly assisted by their hooked bills, which are 
used, like the foot, as an organ of prehension and " support.* 

* Naturalists' Library. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 257 

"In painted plumes superbly drest 

A native of the gorgeous East, 
Poll gains at length the British shore, 

Part of the captain's precious store." — Cowper. 

801. Why is a parrot able to move its bill with un- 
usual force, and to peck out and divide its food with 
extreme nicety? 

Because both mandibles of the parrot's beak are move- 
able (most birds being able to move only one), and are 
endowed with a large amount of muscular power. 

802. The fleshy tongues of parrots are as peculiar as their bills, and 
are very useful to the birds in turning a nut, or other food, into a 
convenient position for the power of the bill to bear upon it. The 
fleshy tongue is found in all parrots, excepting the Australian group, called 
the loniquets, which birds feed on the honey offlowers, and have tongues 
formed with bristles like a brush, with which they sweep together the 
honey. 

803. Why has each species of the parrot tribe its own 
peculiar residence, and a very limited distribution around it? 

This is partly accounted for by the shortness of the 
wings, and the want of power of flight, which prevent 
their migration; but it is partly due also to the adaptation 
of each species to a peculiarity of conditions, which would 
not be met with elsewhere. 

804. Why among the parrot tribes are there marked 
differences in the forms of their feet? 

Because, as there are various kinds of trees and plants 
upon which they live, so a different form and development 
of the climbing organs is necessary to adapt the bird to 
its habitation. 

805. Those who have examined the tropical forests, mention that 
there appears to be a species of parrot adapted for each of the more 
conspicuous kind of trees which are to be met with in those forests. 
Thus, if the tree is a palm, or anything else which has a single stem, 
antl can afford nourishment for a bird only at or near the top of that 
stem, then the species of parrot set over it to consume the surplus of 
its fruit is an air bird, capable of flying over the forest in search of 
such trees; and, when this is the case, the body of the bird is lighter 
in proportion to its lineal dimensions, and its tail is generally very 
much produced, which assists it in ascending and descending. On the 
other hand, the short-flighted parrots, which inhabit trees which are very 
much branched, and bear fruit in the axillae of the leaves of the smaller 
twigs, have the bodies stouter in proportion to the dimensions, the tail 



258 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Words learn'd by rote a parrot may rehearse, 
But talking is not always to converse; 
Not more distinct from harmony divine, 
The constant creaking of a country sign." — Cowper. 



' shorter, and the feathers more firm and scaly. Parrots of this last descrip- 
tion inhabit regions which are more perennially fertile than those inhab- 
ited by the former, whose more produced flying feathers and lighter 
bodies, and, generally speaking, also their more vigorous make, fit them 
better for ranging into a new locality when food fails them in the old 
one; and also for making daily excursions of considerable length over the 
fields in the vicinity of those trees wherein they roost during the night.* 

806. Why are the macaws so named? 

The name is derived from macro and cercus, the latter 
having reference to the large naked space on the cheek and 
around the eye. 

807. Why are parrots, in their natural distribution, 
limited to tropical climates? 

Because they are almost exclusively vegetable feeders, 
the kernels of fruits, and the buds and flowers of trees, 
being the chief sources on which they depend for their 
nourishment. They are therefore unfitted for a locality 
where the woods are for several months of the year fruit- 
less, flowerless, and leafless. 

808. Why do parrots suffer less from confinement than 
birds in general? 

Because birds of flight, when brought within the nar- 
row limits of a cage, lose their necessary exercise. But 
parrots, being climbing birds, are able to a great extent to 
keep up the movements of the natural condition. 

809. Why do parrots gnaw and chip pieces of wood? 
The propensity which the whole of the parrot tribe 

have for biting wood, and throwing the bits away, suggests 
that they perform a very useful function in the scheme of 
nature. 

In their distribution they are limited to tropical climates, 
and in those climates to localities where the vegetation is 
so luxuriant that the forests are impenetrable to man. 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 259 



"O who would e'er have thought that time 
Those trees whose bodies seemed by their 
To press the solid earth, and with their 
To climb into the clcuds." — Drayton. 


could have decay'd 
so massy weight 
wondrous height 



- It is the office of the parrot tribes to fceep in check this 
excessive vegetation, and to prune the trees which they in- 
habit. A parrot in the woods has harder labor to perform 
than almost any other bird which lives upon vegetable mat- 
ter. And it is remarkable that they gnaw and chip wood, 
not for the purposes of appetite; but because this occupa- 
tion affords them a great degree of pleasure. 

Through this biting propensity, they contribute to the 
removal of decayed trees, by enlarging the holes in their 
trunks, and exposing the woody fiber to the action of the 
rain and atmosphere. 

810. What important advantage does the parrot de- 
rive from the moveability of its upper mandible? 

The upper mandible being moveable, and not, as in 
other birds, united to the cranium, prevents pressure or con- 
cussion being communicated to the brain, while the bird 
performs the arduous gnawing task assigned to it. 

- 811. Why are paraquettes so called? 

The term may be considered as a diminutive of parrot, 
and is used to distinguish the smaller birds of the parrot 
tribes. 

812. Why are paraquettes not abundant in America. 
The Carolina paraquette which was once abundant in 

North America has been almost exterminated by hunters. 
It was destructive of fruit to some extent, but its conspic- 
uous colors and ease of approach made it an easy victim 
to any man with a gun. 

813. Why does the parrot construct no nest? 

The soft dust accumulated at the bottom of the trunks 



260 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"The time shall come when chanticleer shall wish 
His words unsaid, and hate his boasted bliss: 
The crested bird shall by experience know, 
Jove made him not his master-piece below." — Dryden. 



of decayed trees suffices for all the purposes of a nest, and 
precludes the necessity of any artificial contrivance. 

814. The instinctive liking for such a bed does not desert it in a 
state of captivity. Buffon mentions a pair of parrots in France, that for 
several years successively produced and brought up their young. The 
place they selected for this purpose was a cask partially filled with 
sawdust. 

815. Why are cockatoos so called? 

Because of the peculiarly dis- 
tinct manner in which they speak 
the word cockatoo, though gen- 
erally they are less capable of 
articulating sounds than the true 
parrot. Cockatoos are distin- 
guished from true parrots, and 
all others, by a crest, or tuft of 
feathers on the head, which they 
can raise or depress at pleasure. 

816. Why is the toucan 
tribe so named? 
From the cry tu-cano which it utters when upon the 
watch, or when apprehensive of danger. 

817. Why does the toucan toss hack its head while 
eating? 

This habit is rendered necessary by the length of the 
bill and the stiffness of the tongue, which prevent their 
eating as other birds ; they therefore, when the morsel has 
received its first mastication, throw it into the gullet with 
a smart jerk. 

818. The toucan has a practice of returning his food, some time after 
he has transmitted it to his crop; and, after masticating it for a second 
time in the bill, again swallowing it; the whole operation bearing a 
strong resemblance to the process in ruminating animals. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 261 

"The merry cuckowe, messenger of spring, 

His trumpet shrill has thrice already sounded; 
That warnes all louvers waite upon their king, 

Who now is coming forth with girland crowned." — Spencer. 

819. Why has the toucan such an immense bill? 

In order to enable it to procure its food, consisting of 
small birds and their eggs, found in deep nests, and vari- 
ous hard vegetable substances. 

820. The bill of the toucan, although large — in some instances being 
nearly as long as the body itself — is light and cellular. It serves as a 
hatchet, and at the same time has all the delicate action of a very neat 
pair of pliers. The toucan is not a swift or powerful flyer; but its 
motions, as it hops from branch to branch, are not ungraceful. The bill 
is, in fact no incumbrance to the bird, however ill its appearance may 
suit with our ideas of proportion. 

82 1 . Why is it ordained that the cuckoo should de- 
posit its eggs in the nests of other birds? 

Because the cuckoo is the largest of insectivorous birds, 
and requires a great quantity of food, which, like the swal- 
low, it must make constant search for. If cuckoos sat 
upon their eggs, they would be unable to obtain this large 
supply; and if they left their eggs to search for food, the 
eggs would become chilled while they were on the wing. 

However the American cuckoo is equally large and 
yet raises its own young honestly, so there is little excuse 
for the habits of its European cousin. 

822. Why does the cuckoo drop her eggs into the 
nests of birds smaller than herself? 

Because if she were to drop her eggs into the nest of 
a bird which produced a large egg, and consequently a 
large nestling, the young cuckoo would probably find an 
insurmountable difficulty in solely posse3sing the nest, as 
its exertions would be unequal to the labor of turning out 
the young birds. 

823. Why does the female cuckoo deposit her eggs in 
the nests of the sparrorv, the wagtail, etc., which are dis- 
proportionately small; and pass by the nests of the black- 
bird, thrush, etc., which appear to be better adapted for 
the purpose? 



262 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Since the cuckoo builds not for himself, 
Remain in't as thou may'st." — Shakspere. 



Because the various insects and flies upon which the 
sparrow, wagtail, etc., feed, form the best £iW of food, 
upon which the young cuckoos can be reared. Whilst 
the aliment upon which the blackbird and the thrush usu- 
ally subsist is not proper, and in some respects would be 
injurious. 

824. When the cuckoo is 
hatched previously to the off- 
spring of its foster-parent, it 
throws the unhatched eggs out 
of the nest by means of its 
broad and depressed beak. It 
visits its lay companions with 
the same treatment; and, ad- 
mitting no rival, monopolizes 
all the room and all the food 
to itself; and such is the vo- 
racity of this bird, that the 
most untiring zeal and labor of 
the foster-parent are scarcely 
able to satisfy the cravings of 
the intruder. 

825. Why does the 
cuckoo deposit her eggs in the nests of other birds with her 
bill? 

Because if the cuckoo sat upon the adopted nest while 
laying the egg, the weight of its body would derange the 
nest, and cause it to be forsaken; thus defeating one of the 
ends of Providence. 

826. Why do injuries so frequently occur to the eggs 
of those birds in whose nests cuckoos lay? 

These accidents are chiefly owing to the sitting bird 
attempting to accommodate herself to eggs of different 
sizes. 

If comparatively large and small eggs are placed in 
the same nest, some of the smaller ones are generally 
thrown out, or rendered addle, by the hen bird endeavor- 
ing to arrange them so that she may distribute nearly an 
equal degree of warmth and pressure to all: but the larger 
ones, which chiefly sustain her weight, and consequently 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 263 

"Harsh your love-notes thrill, 
To me no pleasure Nature now can yield; 
Alike the barren rock and woody hill, 

The dark-brown blasted heath and fruitful field." — Chatterton. 



are less liable to be moved usually remain uninjured. 
When the eggs of birds are exchanged for others of a 
uniform magnitude, or provided the difference is not so 
great as to occasion them to be forsaken, no disturbance 
ensues, whatever their color may be, the change either not 
being perceived, or totally disregarded. 

827. Why do birds of the cuckoo kind perch upon 
the backs of oxen while grazing? 

Many of them eat the insects which infest cattle; and 
the latter are so well aware of the fact, as well as grateful 
for it, that they frequently lie down, in order that the bird 
may devour its prey undisturbed. 

828. Why is the bird known as the wry-neck so called? 
Because it has a habit of moving its head in various 

directions, not unlike a snake; this is especially the case 
when discovered in its nest, upon which occasions it writhes 
its head quickly from shoulder to shoulder, with strange 
and apparently painful contortions. 

829. Why are love-birds so named? 

From the singular degree of attachment to each other 
which they manifest; sitting closely side by side caressing 
each other, arranging each other's plumage, and exhibiting 
various marks of mutual regard. 

830. Why is the oven bird so designated? 
From the singular oven-like form of its nest 

831. It is a native of South America, liut is occasionally found in 
Southern Europe. The nest, whence it takes its name, is placed in the 
most exposed situations, as the top of a post, a bare rock, or a cactus. 
It is composed of mud and bits of straw, and has strong, thick walls: 
in shape it precisely resembles an oven, or a depressed bee-hive. The 
opening is large and arched, and directly in front. Within the nest there 
is a partition which reaches nearly to the roof: thus forming a passage, 
or anti-chamber, to the true nest. 

In North America the golden-crowned water thrush is sometimes 
called the oven-bird, because it builds an enclosed nest of grass and leaves 
with the entrance at the side. 



264 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Whilst wheeling round in airy wanton flights, 
The glossy pigeons chase their sportive loves." — Dodsley. 



ORDER IV. GYRATORES. 

832. Why is the order gyratores thus designated? 
From the word gyratio, a "turning" or "wheeling 

round." It refers to the ordinary mode of flight dis- 
played by the birds included in the order. 

833. Why has the pigeon tribe a puffed-out appear- 
ance about the breast? 

This arises from the presence of its unusually large 
crop; an organ which is capable of some of the uses of the 
paps in mammalia. 

834. By what remarkable process are the young pig- 
eons and other birds of the dove-faind fed by their parents? 

The parents of the dove kind support their young with 
the curd-lihe contents of their crops, as the mammalia do 
with milk in the early stages of the existence of their off- 
spring. 

835. This is performed by the faculty which the parent birds possess 
of throwing up the contents of their crops, which assume the appearance 
of a granulated white curd. It would appear that the young pigeon is fed 
for a little time with this curd-like substance only, for about the third 
day some of the common food is found mingled with it. As the pigeon 
grows older, the proportion of common food is increased; so that, by the 
time it is seven, eight, or nine days old, the secretion of the curd ceases 
in the old bird, and of course no more will be found in the crop of the 
young. It is a curious fact, that the parent pigeon has, at first, a 
power to throw up this curd without any mixture of common food, 
although, afterwards, both are thrown up according to the proportion 
required for the young ones. 

No young birds are in so forlorn a state as young pigeons, if the 
parents are killed before the young can provide for themselves. Birds 
of other species, stimulated by the cries of the helpless young which have 
been deprived of parental aid. can and do assist the little starvelings; but 
none except an old pigeon, with its crop in a proper state, can save the 
life of a nestling dove. 

836. Why is the plumage of the rock pigeon very 
close and compact? 

They are thus furnished to enable them to encounter 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 265 

"One silent eve I wander'd late, 

And heard the voice of love; 
The turtle thus address'd her mate, 

And soothed the listening </ore."— Cowper. 

the severe storms which they often experience, at those 
places where they frequent. 

837. It does not appear that there is, generally speaking, much food 
for them in the close vicinity of the rocks — their natural habitations. 
But, in order to keep up the powerful and long-continued muscular action 
which they must exert, they require a high degree of action in the vital 
system, and consequently a copious and frequent supply of food. In order 
to obtain this, they must range about in all weathers, and consequently 
they require to be warmly as well as compactly clothed. 

838. Why is the plumage of the pigeon Iribe of a 
somber hue? 

Their food consist chiefly of grain, acorns, beech- 
nuts, and other seeds, and occasionally the tender shoots 
of particular plants. These they gather on the ground, and 
hence the color of their plumage is so ordered as not to 
be readily distinguishable from the vegetation among which 
they feed. 

839. The structure of the pigeon tribe manifestly displays the unerring 
provision of Nature. Their bills are slender, though still of average 
strength, for they have no nuts or fruits to break. Their tails are 
generally square, and their wings strong and pointed, thus fitting them 
for long and arduous flights. 

840. Why does the rock pigeon prefer, among arti- 
ficial pigeon-houses, one that has been whitewashed ? 

There may be two reasons for this: first, the whitened 
pigeon-house is a more conspicuous object than the other; 
and secondly, a considerable quantity of carbonate of lime 
may be required for the eggs of the female, which, though 
only two in each batch, are often numerous in the course 
of the year. This the bird obtains by pecking at the lime. 

841. Why is the rock pigeon, which never feeds upon 
fish, seen to walk and pick upon the sea-beach? 

Probably for the purpose of taking into its crop bits 
of shell and small stones, as means towards the digestion 
of its food. 



266 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"I have heard her with sweetness unfold 
How that pity was due to a dove; 
That it ever attended the bold, 

And she called it the sister of love." — Shenstone. 



842. Why does the ringdove feed greedily, and get 
very fat, in the autumn months? 

In order to be better prepared for enduring the severer 
and less abundant months of winter. 

843. In autumn the ring pigeons begin to associate in flocks. At 
first they feed upon the fruits of forest trees, and particularly the beech- 
mast, which at that time is strewed upon the ground. The grains and 
seeds left, and small fallen fruits, are their first subsistence; but, as 
they are ravenous feeders, they, if in great numbers, speedily exhaust 
these. After this, they migrate farther south, and attack the more suc- 
culent green leaves which remain in the fields — such as those of field- 
greens, turnips, and mangold-wurtzel. 

844. Why does the dove tribe seek the vicinity of 
man, so as to prefer an artificial pigeon-house to its native 
haunts in rocks, etc.? 

The feet of the dove, or common pigeon, are walking 
feet, with very little of the perching character. The ex- 
ternal and internal front toes are of equal length, the hind 
toe is short, and the claws are not hooked, as in the de- 
cided perchers, but so placed as that the foot may be wholly 
planted upon the ground. Hence a regularly formed 
ground may have a charm for the pigeon, which its wild 
rocks cannot supply. 

845. Why are the notes of the wood-pigeon commonly 
associated with gentleness and love? 

Because the cooings 
of these birds accord so 
intimately with our con- 
ception of all that is gen- 
tle and innocent, that one 
cannot listen to them with- 
out being impressed with 
feelings which no other 
sounds in nature, save that 
of the human voice itself, 
could inspire. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



267 



'O, ten times faster than Venus' pigeons fly 

To scnl love's bonds new made, than they are wont 

To keep obliged faith forfeited." — Shakspere. 



846i A man, who" was once a pirate, declared that several times 
while at certain wells dug in the burning shelly sands of a well-known 
bay, the soft and melancholy cry of the wood-pigeons awoke in his 
breast feelings which had long slumbered, melted his heart to repentance, 
and caused him to linger at the spot in a state of mind which he only 
who compares the wretchedness of guilt with the happiness of former 
innocence can truly feel. He said he never left the place without 
increased fears of futurity; and so deeply was he moved at length by the 
notes of this bird, that through their influence he was induced to escape 
from his vessel, abandon his lawless companions, and return to a family 
deploring his absence. After paying a parting visit to these wells, and 
listening once more to the voice of the bird, he poured out his soul 
in supplications for mercy, and once more became an honest man. 

847. Why is the song of the ringed pigeon heard at 
intervals only of the spring and autumn? 

Because, except when engaged in constructing its nest, 
or the process of incubation and the rearing of its young, 
this bird utters no note: these cares over, it retires to the 
woods, and is silent until the breeding-time again com- 
mences. 

848. Why do pigeons return to the place from which 
they set ouU after having accomplished a long journey? 

Because these birds 
are conspicuous for their 
strong attachment to local- 
ity or home. And in 
training them to carry mis- 
sives, etc., the bird is tried 
at easy distances, which 
are gradually extended 
until twenty or thirty miles 
are accomplished success- 
fully, and when this dis- 
tance has been attained, 
the pigeon will travel to, and return from, any spot, how- 
ever remote. 

849. The following anecdotes will be found to illustrate the wonder- 
ful faculty of the carrier pigeon: — In the year 1819, an experiment was 
tried between London and Antwerp. Thirty-two pigeons with the word 




268 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Say, mid that grove, in love-lorn state, 
While yon poor ring-dove' mourns her mate, 
Is all that meets the shepherd's ear. 
Inspired by anguish and despair?" — Mason. 



"Antwerp" marked on their wings, and which had been reared in that 
city, were let loose in London at seven o'clock in the morning, after 
having their wings counter-marked "London." The same day, towards 
noon, one arrived at home; a quarter of an hour afterwards, another 
arrived. The following day twelve others returned, making fourteen in 
all; of the fate of the rest no tidings were gleaned. In July, 1829, another 
experiment was made, in consequence of some wagers laid at Maestricht 
between some merchants there, that pigeons taken to London would, when 
let loose, return in six hours. Forty-two pigeons were accordingly brought 
to London, and after being properly marked, were thrown up at twenty-six 
minutes past eight in the morning. If any one of the number had arrived 
at Maestricht within six hours, the principal wager, which was for 10,000 
guilders, would have been gained; but in consequence, as it was supposed, 
of a heavy rain, the first did not arrive till six hours and a quarter from 
the time when it left London, having, nevertheless, traveled at the rate 
of forty-five miles an hour, assuming that the journey was performed in 
a straight line. The second arrived in seven hours, the third in seven 
hours and ten minutes, the fourth in seven hours and a half, and in four 
days more than twenty had returned. The missing birds are supposed 
to have met with accidents, which might be reasonably supposed to 
occur in such a long fourney, such as being shot, or to have taken up 
their abode with wild flocks on their way. 



850. Why does the form of the ring-dove become 
considerably changed in the evening? 

Because, when they have fed upon turnip-tops and 
other vegetables during the day, the crop becomes so dis- 
tended with food t as to give to the fore part of the body 
a very full appearance. The contents of the stomach hav- 
ing been digested during the night the body regains its 
ordinary proportions. 

85 1 . Why is the flesh of the mid pigeon less delicate 
and palatable than that of the tamed variety. 

Because the violent and frequently repeated exercise 
to which they are subjected hardens the muscles of birds 
in a state of nature. 



852. If the birds are brought up from their earliest stage, and kept 
npon rich pastures where they have occasion to use the wing but little, 
the tenderness and also the flavor of their flesh are greatly improved. 



1& 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 269 

"The careful hen 
Galls all her chirping family around, 
Fed and defended by the fearless cock, 
Whose breast with ardour flames, as on he walks. 
Graceful, and crows defiance." — Thomson. 



ORDER V. — RASORES. 

853. Why is the order rasores so called? 

From rado, to scrape or scratch, the birds of this order 
comprehending the gallinaceous tribe being distinguished by 
their habit of scraping the earth, to obtain food. 

854. They are omnivorous; living equally upon seeds, grains, and 
insects. It is to this order that most of our domestic birds, the feathered 
tenants of the farmyard, belong; and also most of those unreclaimed by 
man, celebrated for the excellency of their flesh, as the grouse, partridge, 
quail, and pheasant, 

855. Why do gallinaceous and other birds pick U P 
small stones, bits of shells, etc., and gravel, which are after' 
wards found embedded in their gizzards? 

The gizzard is a fleshy stomach, the substance of 
which consists of strong muscle; the dark part of the giz- 
zard being the muscle, and the shining part of it the lining 
of the digestive cavity. Birds pick up small fragments of 
stone, which pass with the grain to the gizzard, and there 
become the means of grinding the food upon which the 
birds subsist. 

The cavity within this muscle is lined with a dense, rough, insensible 
coat, and there are always to be found contained in it small stones, 
generally of quartz, if it be within the reach of the bird. 

The grains are mixed with these portions of stone; and if we place 
our ear close to the bird, we may hear the grinding motions going on as 
distinctly as the noise of the horse's jaws in a manger. 

In fact, this gizzard, is equivalent to the muscles of the jaws, and 
the pebbles are a fair equivalent to the teeth, with this advantage, that 
when they are ground down, the instinct of the bird provides more.* 

857. In what respect do the gallinaceous birds re" 
semble ruminating animals? 

By a peculiar arrangement, the food taken up by the 
bill of these birds undergoes a triturating process in the 

•Notes to Paley's "Nat. Theology," by Sir Charles Bell. 



270 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

i 

"The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn, 
Doth with his lofty and shrill sounding throat 
Awake the god of day." — Shakspere. 

« , ; .- 

gizzard, before passing into the stomach; thus it submits 
to a double digestion, somewhat analogous to the triple 
digestive action of the ruminants. 

858. The gallinidae have, generally speaking, three stomachs, and 
their intestines are more lengthened than those of most birds, and fur- 
nished with two caecal appendages, about six inches in length. These 
three stomachs are : the craw, or pouch, into which the food is taken, as 
into little more than a simple store, where it is sent gradually to the 
other parts of the digestive apparatus. In this viscus the food undergoes 
very little change, though it may be partially softened. The craw opens 
laterally from the gullet. The second stomach is a dilatation of the 
gullet itself, and is furnished with glands which secrete a peculiar fluid; 
and it is here, also, that the drink of the bird mingles with its food. 
The third stomach is the gizzard, the texture of which is very strong and 
muscular, and the inner coat so hard and compact as to have the appear- 
ance of firm cartilage. The gizzard can exert a very powerful action, 
so much so as to grind down glass and metals in a very short time, 
without appearing to sustain injury. 

859. Why do the gallinaceous birds lay and hatch their 
eggs in nests upon the ground? 

Because, being indifferent flyers, their young after incu- 
bation are thus enabled to reach their proper habitat with- 
out the risk of injury. 

860. Why are the legs of gallinaceous birds developed 
at a very early stage of their existence? 

Because they are ground birds; feed upon their feet; 
and pass the greater portion of their lives in walking and 
scraping, 

861. The newly -hatched, birds require these organs developed very 
early, being less provided with a formal nest than the young of any of 
the preceding orders. 

862. Why has the cock a streaming and elegant tail? 
In all probability this appendage, which is useless to 

him in flying, adds to the dignity and importance of his 
bearing in the eyes of his mates. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



271 



"While the cock with lively din, 
Scatters the rear of darkness thin, 
And to the stack or the barn door, 
Stoutly struts his dames before." — Milton. 




863. Why has the common fowl become thoroughly 
domesticated? 

Because, being omniv- 
orous it delights in that 
great variety of food which 
proximity to man affords; 
while its hardy nature en- 
ables it to support great 
variations of season and 
temperature. 

This rule is not with- 
out limitation: the barn- 
door fowl does not thrive 
or breed in very cold cli- 
mates. Every attempt to in- 
troduce it to such countries 
as Siberia has hitherto 
failed. 

864. Why have common poultry limited powers of 
flight? 

Because they have little use for wings: only requiring 
those organs to assist their legs when alarmed, or in reach- 
ing the perches upon which they pass the hours of repose. 

865. The chief use of the wings of the galTinidae, besides enabling 
those which perch during" the night to reach their perches, appears to be 
safety against quadrupedal foes. Their fluttering gets them, perhaps, 
sooner above the reach of these than if they had a more steady and 
forward style of flight. From birds of prey they may be said, one and 
all, to be incapable of escaping on the wing: their safety from these con- 
sists in crouching among the clods or lurking among the herbage. Their 
wings are short, broad, and concave; and also looser in the plumage of 
their under sides than the wings of almost all other birds. All these 
qualities enable them to take a firm hold on the air, which assists them 
in working upwards; though it renders flight more laborious. 

866. Why do fowls prefer to roost in elevated places? 

Because they have an instinctive dread of vermin which 

may molest them on the ground during the hours of dark- 



272 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"See from the brake the whirring pheasant springs, 
And mounts triumphant on exulting wings." — Pope. 

ness. Hence poultry, if left to themselves and not housed, 
will perch the winter through on yew trees and fir trees; 
and turkeys and guinea fowls, heavy as they are, get up 
into apple trees around their owner's house for security, 
Jet the weather be ever so boisterous. 

867. Partridges roost on the ground, not having the faculty of perch- 
ing; but the same fear prevails with them; for, through apprehension 
of polecats and stoats, they never trust themselves to coverts, but nestle 
together in the midst of large fields, far removed from hedges and 
coppices. As to ducks and geese, their awkward web-feet preclude them 
from settling on trees; they, therefore, in the hours of darkness and 
danger, betake themselves to their own element, the water, where, amidst 
large lakes and pools, like ships riding at anchor, they float the whole 
night long in peace and security. 

868. Why does the plumage of the pheasant taper 
of to a point? 

The haunts of these birds are among shrubs, bushes, 
and tall herbage, through which they have to make their 
way with as little rustling as possible: this their pointed 
tails enable them to do most perfectly. 

869. Why do pheasants prefer larch trees to perch 
upon? 

Because the branches of this tree grow at nearly right 
angles from the stem; which renders the sitting position 
of the birds peculiarly easy. 

870. Why have the eggs of guinea fowls so hard a 

shell? 

Because these birds 
deposit their eggs on the 
ground, and were the 
shells not harder than 
those of ordinary eggs, 
they would be broken 
by many accidental 
causes. The eggs, though 
laid on the ground, are 
usually concealed. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



273 



"O'er the wild waste the stupid ostrich strays 
In devious search to pick her scanty meal, 
Whose fierce digestion gnaws the temper^ steel." — Mickin. 



871. Why do jowls and other birds hustle themselves 
in the dust? 

Because by this action they rid themselves of the vermin 
with which they are liable to be troubled. 

872. On the same principle, swine wallow in the mire, and the 
rhinoceros and the elephant roll their bodies in the mud to defend them 
from the breeze-fly. 



ORDER VI. — CURSORES. 

Why is the order cursores so termed? 

birds comprehended therein are distin- 



873 

Because the 
guished by possessing great powers of locomotion afoot 




874. The word cursores 
is derived from the Latin 
verb curro, "I run." These 
birds are strictly and exclu- 
sively terrestrial: have pow- 
erful and even massive legs, 
moved by voluminous mus- 
cles; and wings which are 
scarcely more than rudimen- 
tary, barely enabling the bird 
to rise above the surface of 
the earth. The ostrich, dodo, 
and cassowary are the chief 
examples of this order. 



875. Why is the ostrich the swiftest of animals? 

Because of the very wide and scanty distribution of its 
food, and the consequent large area over which it must 
travel in order to obtain it. 



876. Why does the ostrich possess digestive organs of 
extraordinary power? 

Because the scanty supply of food which the deserts 
afford, renders it necessary that the bird should be able 



274 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

''At both these times they were motherless and helplesse, concernynge 

theyro owne strengthes; but were yet cared for of 

God." — Bible Notes- 1551. 



to extract the whole nourishment which that supply is cap- 
able of rendering. 

877. Why does the hen ostrich continue to lay eggs, 
while engaged in incubation? 

Because she thus provides for her young brood a means 
of subsistence which they would otherwise need. The eggs 
laid during incubation are destined to nourish the brood? 

878. Although as large as pullets when first ^hatched, the young 
ostriches are then unable to digest the hard and acrid food On which the 
old ones subsist. The eggs laid for this purpose are not deposited in 
the nest, but placed outside it, which alone would be a proof of the use 
they are intended to serve. 

879. Why dees the hen ostrich sometimes abandon her 
nest for a long period? 

Because the absence of moisture in the desert dimin- 
ishes the quantity of food which the bird can meet with: 
and this compels her to take long journeys in order to 
preserve her life. 

880. Under such circumstances, she also actually requires more food; 
for the amount necessary to the healthy state of an animal increases with 
the increase of its labor. That this is the only reason why the ostrich 
should for a while abandon her eggs, is made clear by the fact that where 
food is more plentiful — i. e. t in districts better watered — she takes a 
narrower range, and is less frequently absent from the nest. Under the 
tropics, where vegetation aboundss, she seldom, if ever, quits it till the 
eggs are hatched. 

88 1 . Why has the hen ostrich been cited as a type of 
the neglectful mother? 

Because of an apparent inclination to abandon her eggs 
to chance, by leaving them uncovered during some hours of 
the day. 

882. This carelessness is, however, only apparent. During the heat 
of the African day the vertical rays of the sun are sufficient to keep the 
eggs at a proper temperature, and the mother takes that opportunity to 
procure food for herself. 

During such an excursion she still hovers about her nest, and if sur- 
prised, makes a short circuit, and returns to the object of her care. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 275 

"I'll make thee eat iron like an ostrich, and swallow my sword like a 
great pin, ere thou and I part." — Shakspere. 



The expression in the Book of Job, derogatory to the character of 
the ostrich, are to be understood as spoken by an individual, not as 
coming from the lips of inspired wisdom. God has looked upon the 
creation of his hands and pronounced it "very good." Job (in chap, 
xxxix.) spoke according to his limited knowledge of the habits of birds, 
and might pardonably err. 41 

In the dry desert, where the hen ostrich deposits her eggs, scarcely 
any dew is formed during the night; and she can without injury to them 
afford to be absent from the nest during the whole twenty-four hours, if 
such an absence should be necessary. For the radiation of heat from 
the sand during the night would be quite sufficient to keep up a stimulus 
to vitality in the eggs until the direct sun of another day came upon them. 

883. Why does the foot of the ostrich resemble that 
of a camel? 

Because it inhabits the same regions, and is subject 
to the same set of circumstances; with this difference, that 
as its pace is more swift, the foot of the ostrich is therefore 
proportionally hard and callous. 

884. The resemblance between the ostrich and camel has always been 
a subject of remark. By the ancient authors it was called the camel-bird. 
Aristotle asserts it to be partly bird and partly quadruped; and Pliny 
does the same. Its powers of digestion assimilate it to the ruminating 
animals; it does, in fact, occupy the place among birds which the camel, 
"the ship of the desert," does among mammalia. 

885. Why has the ostrich small and light Things? 

It is a rule in nature that whenever one species of 
action is required in a very high degree the organization of 
an animal is concentrated upon that. Flight would have 
been of comparatively little use to a vegetable feeding 
bird, where its height, standing on foot, is quite sufficient 
to reach the top of the tallest shrub on its pastures. 

886. Wings sufficient to bear up so weighty a bird as the ostrich in 
swift motion through the air would have demanded a waste of muscular 
exertion, for the supply of which sufficient food could not have been 
found in the region inhabited by it. 



tions 



* See "The Knowledge of the Bible" for many interesting explana- 
of Scripture texts. 



276 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



~ 4 A giantess she seems; but, look behind. 
And then she dwindles to the pigmy kind, 
Duck-legg*d, short waisted."— Dryden. 



ORDER VII. — GRALLATORES. 

887. Why is the order grallatores so termed? 

From the circumstance that the birds comprehended in 
it are waders, distinguished by the length of their legs, and 
generally of their bills. The word is formed from gralloe,. 
"stilts;" grallatores, therefore, means literally "stilt walk- 
ers. 

888. These birds feed upon 
worms and the smaller species 
of fish found on the banks, and 
hold an intermediate place be- 
tween land and aquatic birds; 
and though not provided with 
any apparatus to enable them 
to swim, the provision thus 
made, as in the case of the 
long-legged plover seen in the 
engraving, enables them to 
wade in the water in search 
of their prey, and to seize 
it without any difficulty. 

889. Why have long- 
legged wading birds gen- 
erally short tails? 

Because tails of any considerable length would be in- 
convenient to such birds: coming in contact with water, they 
would be liable to become wet, heavy, and cumbersome. 
For, although the plumage of water-birds is provided with 
an oil which repels water, it operates chiefly upon the closer 
plumage, to prevent the water from penetrating to the flesh 
of the body. 

890. Another reason why wading birds have short tails is to be 
found in the fact that many of them are of hiding habits, and lond of 
concealing themselves in tall vegetation. Birds which have these habits 
are always small-tailed, or that member is so disposed, as in the 
pheasant, that it trails the earth, and in no way interferes with their 
concealment. 

891. Why have wading birds wide-spreading feet? 
Because, in searching after their food, they have fre- 
quently to stand by the slippery edges of the water, and to 





KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 277 

"There's not a better steerer in the realm, 
I hope, my lord, you'll call him to the helm." — Swift. 

steady themselves on sloping banks of wet grass, neither oF 
which could they effect securely were their feet formed 
with a narrower base. 

892. Why do short-tailed birds generally throw their 
legs behind them when flying? 

Because, being destitute 
of the steerage power usu- 
ally afforded by the tail, 
they find a substitute in their 
long legs, which they throw 
back to occupy its place: 
thus they get rid of the in- 
convenience of long legs 
while flying, and are compensated for the absence of the tail. 

893. Why have fish-eating birds in general no crop? 
Because all they swallow, however large it may be, 

enters at once into the stomach, and undergoes immediate 
digestion. 

894. Why has the snipe a long tapering bill? 
Because it derives its food by penetrating its bill into 

the moist earth. This is exactly the instrument which the 
animal wanted. It did not require strength in its bill, 
which was inconsistent with the slender form of the ani- 
mal's neck, as well as unnecessary for the kind of aliment 
upon which it subsists; but it wanted length to reach its 
object. 

895. Why are the eyes of snipes placed more back- 
ward in the head, than in most other birds? 

Because these organs are not much wanted in the im- 
mediate capture of their prey, and are thus placed so as 
to best guard against enemies. And besides, the eyes be- 
ing thus situated enables the bill to bore its whole length 
in the mud, when searching for worms. 



278 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"But if I knew when you come next a burding, 
I'll have a stronger noose to hold the woodcock.** 

Beaumont and Fletcher. 

996. Why are birds of the snipe family without the 
long hind toe of other birds? 

Because in wading in the mud, where the feet must 
necessarily sink deeply, a long hind toe would be an en- 
cumbrance, and tend to throw the bird on to its head in 
the water. 

897. Why do snipes and woodcocks gradually dis- 
appear from cultivated districts? 

Because the three essentials to the tribe are solitude, 
shelter, and humidity — consequently, population, clearance, 
and drainage drive them into more sequestered places. 

898. The grand resort of woodcocks in summer is understood to 
be marshy woods to the north of the Baltic; and the farther north, so 
long as the place is wooded, the better, as the insect food for the birds 
is not only more plentiful, but the sludge of the marshes is more exclu- 
sively the nest of the larvae. 

899. Why does the flamingo, when feeding, hold its 
head and beak upside-down in the water? 

The feet of the bird while feeding are moved in a 
trampling manner, in order to stir the sand or mud beneath 
the water; the food thus disturbed, whether insects, fish, 
or stones, are continually falling into their former position. 
The flamingo, by placing its head in that peculiar way, 
catches in its mouth, tests upon its tongue, and appropriates 
to its use whatever is suitable for food. 

900. The structure of the flamingo's tongue is admirably adapted to 
its purpose. The spines with which the upper surface is armed are 
arranged in an irregular and alternate series, and act with the notches 
on the edge of the upper mandible, on which they press when the 
bird feeds with the head reversed. In this reversed position, the weight 
and size of the tongue supply a very efficient instrument for entrapping 
the food. The bird muddles and clutters the bill, and dabbles about; 
and the tongue receives, and holds as a strainer, whatever the water 
offers for food.* 

* Maunder's "Treasury." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



279 



"What is this mighty breath, ye sages say 
That, in a powerful language, felt, not heard, 
Instructs the fowls of heaven?" — Thomson. 

90 1 . Why does the flamingo make its nest upon 
mound-like elevations ? 

Because the great 
length of the legs of the 
flamingo precludes the 
possibility of its conduct- 
ing incubation in the ordi- 
nary manner. Inhabiting 
marshy places, the nests 
are thus raised above the 
rvet soil, to a dry and 
warm situation, in which 
the process of hatching 
can more effectually be 
accomplished. 




902. These elevated nests are constructed bv the bird out of loose 
earth or mud, formed into the shape of a hillock, with a hollow cavity at 
the top; the eggs are two or three in number, white, and as large as 
those of a goose, but of a longer figure. The female sits upon her nest 
during incubation, the attitude being that of a person sitting upon a 
high stool — the legs resting on marshy ground, and sometimes even in the 
water. Sometimes, if the female finds a low projecting rock, she makes 
her nest on the edge, thereof, and raises no hillock. 

903. Why has the avocet a bill shaped like a scoop? 

Avocets are fen birds; but, in feeding, they frequent 
only those parts of the fens which are alternately flooded 
and left dry by tidal waters. Their bills are no t adapted 
for taking any fcfnJ of food upon land; neither are they 
fitted for fishing in the waters. Their food is contained 
in mud, ooze, or light gravel; and consists of worms, 
larvae, and small molluscous and crustaceous animals, which 
are there found in great plenty. The greater number of 
these are embedded to a certain depth, and are not seen 
by birds that feed by sight. 



280 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"The machine, which we are inspecting, demonstrates by its construction, 
contrivance, and design. Contrivance must have had a contriver, 
design a designer; whether the machine immediately pro- 
ceeded from another machine or not." — Paley. 




904. In searching for its food among various accumulated matters, 

the avocet moves along with 
slow but rather lengthy steps, 
and scoops ooze or mud in 
curves, right and left, as it 
proceeds. In performing this 
operation, it does not use the 
bill only, but the whole body. 
It alights in the middle with 
its head in the stream, and the 
one foot a little in advance of 
the other. It then stretches and 
depresses the neck, and gives it 
a twist, so that the extremity 
of the bill, which is on a level 
with the ooze* is turned to 
the other side. The foot far- 
thest in advance is the pivot 
on which it is to turn, in 
making the stroke which sweeps 
one curve. Then it slowly ad- 
vances the rearmost foot, which 

elevates the hinder part of the body, depresses the fore part, and throws 
the support on the advanced foot, while, supported by that, and moved 
by the lever power of the other as it is brought forward, the .axis^ of the 
body is caused to cross the stream obliquely in an opposite direction: by 
this motion the bill makes another scoop. The head and bill are then 
elevated for the purpose of conveying to the gullet the food which the 
bill has thus collected. 

905. Why has the spoon-bill long, flattened mandibles? 

Because these birds in- 
habit the borders of rivers 
and sea-coasts, where they 
feed upon small fish, 
shrimps, frogs, quails, and 
aquatic insects; and the 
form of the bill is admir- 
ably adapted for seizing \u\oil'l 
such descriptions of prey. 



widening and flattening at 
the end, so as to form a 
roundish spatula. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 281 

"The stork assembly meets; for many a day, 
, Consulting deep, and various, ere they take 
Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky." — Thomson. 



906. Paley makes these general and interesting remarks upon the 
forms of the bills of birds: — "In birds, the mouth assumes a new char- 
acter; new both in substance and in form, but in both wonderfully 
adapted to the wants and use's of a distinct mode of existence. We have 
no longer the fleshy lips, the teeth of enamelled bone; but we have, in 
the place of these two parts, and to perform the office of both, a hard 
substance, of the same nature with that which composes the nails, claws, 
and hoofs of quadrupeds, cut into proper shapes, and mechanically suited 
to the actions which are wanted. 

The sharp and tempered point of the sparrow*s bill picks almost 
every kind of seed from its concealment in the plant; and not only so, 
but hulls the grain, breaks and shatters the coats of the seed, in order 
to get at the kernel. In the same way it breaks the shells of snails, 
to get at the animal food within. 

The hooked beak of the hawk tribe separates the flesh from the 
bones of the animals which it feeds upon, almost with the cleanliness 
and precision of a dissecting knife. 

The butcher-bird transfixes its prey upon the spike of a thorn, 
whilst it picks the bones. In some birds of this class we have the cross 
bill — i. e., both the upper and lower bill hooked, and their tips crossing; 
and these bills are used for splitting the cones of firs, and other seed- 
vessels, harder than the ordinary grains and seeds which are dissected 
by the beak of the sparrow. 

The spoon bill enables the goose to graze, to collect its food from 
the bottom of pools, or to seek it amidst the soft substances with which 
it is mixed. 

The long tapering bill of the snipe and woodcock penetrates deeply 
into the bed of the moist earth. But the species of bill which belong to 
the birds that live by suction deserves to be described in relation to 
that office. They are what naturalists call serrated, or dentated bills; 
the inside of them towards the edge being thickly set with parallel or 
concentric rows of short, strong, sharp-pointed prickles. These form a 
filter. The duck, by means of them, strains the mud; examining with 
great accuracy the puddle, the brake — every mixture which is likely to 
contain her food. 

907. Why is the stork <m enemy to the cat species? 
Because probably their habits and tastes are too similar 

for them to reside peaceably together. 

The stork is fond of small birds; so is the cat, who 
loves young storks. The parent stork is partial to kittens, 
as an article of food, and finds them an easy and whole- 
some prey. Hence the enmity of the two species. 

908. Why are birds of the stork tribe generally vora- 
cious eaters? 

Because they are subject to great vicissitude of season; 
at times rejoicing in plenty — at others suffering from scar- 



282 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Who bade the stork, Columbus-like, explore 
Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before? 
Who calls the council, states the certain day, 
Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way." — Pope. 



city. Their hearty feeding during favorable seasons en- 
ables them to bear a period of abstinence without material 
injury. 

909. Why has the stork been from the most ancient 
periods an object of favor and veneration? 

Because its usefulness is great; especially in hot coun- 
tries, where it acts as a vigilant scavenger, removing the 
causes of disease and death, and eating the most annoy- 
ing species of reptiles. 

910. Its beneficial labors in Egypt doubtless led to the deification 
of the ibis, a bird of similar character and form. In Holland, and the 
northern parts of Germany, the stork is still protected as a precursor of 
"good luck." 

911. Why has the 
jacana toes of extraor- 
dinary length? 

Because it inhabits 
the borders of waters 
which are frequently 
over-grown with the 
broad leaves of aquatic 
plants. Its spreading 
toes, coupled with the 
lightness of its body, 
enable the bird to walk 
upon the leaves, whilst 
it gathers the insects, 
worms, and small fishes 
that surround them. 

912. Why has the 
jacana sharp hard 
spurs on the corner of 
each wing? 

Because snakes of various sizes, all rapacious, and to 
be dreaded, abound in the haunts of the bird. The spurs 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



283 



"The sitting bird looks up with jetty eye, 
And waves her head in terror to and fro, 
Speckled and vein'd with various shades of brown."- — Clare. 



on the wings are effective weapons against these reptiles, 
the horny appendages of the beak assisting also in their 
destruction. 

913. Why are herons furnished with wings which ap- 
pear to be too cumbersome for their slight bodies? 

Because those vast hollow wings are necessary in car- 
rying burdens, such as large fishes and the like, with which 
they would be dragged to the earth were it not for the 
resisting force thus provided. 

9.1 4. Why is so little known of the habits of the bittern? 

Because it is a bird that loves seclusion, and fixes, its 
haunts in wild and desolate places. No temptation will 
bring it upon cultivated or improved lands as a permanent 
resident; and when the scarcity of winter forces it from 
the upland, it comes down reluctantly and stealthily, and 
seeks those streams and banks which are the rudest and 
least frequented. 

915. Even when not upon the nest, the bittern squats among the 

rushes, or other tall stems, 
during the greater part of 
the day. The mode of 
squatting is rather peculiar, 
and may be understood from 
the accompanying figure. 
The neck, when the head is 
in this posture, is raised, 
and the point of the bill 
directed upwards, the body 
and legs being at the same 
time in such a position 
that a violent thrust may 
be given by the bill, if 
necessary; and, as the neck 
is powerful, and, at the 
same time, readily moveable 
in such a manner as to se- 
cure the whole body from 
attack, there are few birds 
of prey that would venture 
to descend upon the bittern 
in this position, even if 
they should see it. 




284 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Shall I, like Curtiiis, desperate in my zeal, 
O'er head and ears plunge for the common weal 
Or rob Rome's ancient geese of all their glories, 
And cackling save the monarchy of tories?" — Popb. 



ORDER VIII. NATATORES. 

916. Why is the eighth order of birds called natatores? 
From nato, to swim, this being an equivalent term for 

swimmers or water-fowl. 

917. The head of this order is the goose, and by • Linneus it was 
termed anseres, or the goose family. These birds display decidedly 
aquatic habits, swim with facility, and are able to pass the greater part 
of their lives upon the water. 

918. Why are the 
natatores sometimes called 
by the name of "palmi- 
pedes" ? 

From palma, the flat 
front of the hand, and pes, 
a foot — implying that the 
birds are palm, or iveb- 
footed 9 the toes of the feet 
being connected by a web 
or membrane. 

919. Why has the goose 
been considered a stupid bird? 

It has occasionally a 
stupid look ; its walk, or rather 
waddle give it also an absurd 
and imbecile appearance; but 
the ready way in which its 
apprehensions are excited 
seems to have been the first 
cause for this imputed char- 
acter. 

920. The number of geese sent from the northern and eastern coun- 
tries to London for sale annually is immense. They are now conveyed 
by rail, but formerly used to be driven by gooseherds (gozzards). These 





KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 285 

"So have I seen, within a pen, 
Young ducklings fostered by a hen; 
But, when let out, they run and muddle, 
As instinct leads them, in a puddle." — Swift. 



were furnished with long sticks, having a piece of red rag fastened 
at one end as a lash, and a hook at the other. Of this red rag the 
geese always had an unaccountable dread. The goose grazes, and, like 
the ox, is alarmed at a red color, probably from the same cause, {see 540). 

921. Why was the goose an object of respect to the 
ancient Roman people? 

On account of a circumstance by which a flock of 
geese saved the capital of Rome from surprise and capture. 

The goose, although regarded as an emblem of stupid- 
ity, is a very watchful bird, and when anything strange 
appears, sets up a loud and unmistakable gabbling. 

922. The Gauls, under Brennus (year of Rome, 364), were in pos- 
session of the greater part of the city. The garrison, however, still held 
the capitol, and that with such obstinacy that the Gualish general had 
no hope but to starve it out. One day, Brennus was informed of a 
secret path by means of which he would be able to enter, and surprise 
the capitol. Accordingly, a chosen body of his men were ordered by 
night upon this dangerous service, which they, with great labor and diffi- 
culty, almost effected; when suddenly the garrison was awakened to 
vigilance by the voices of some sacred geese kept in the Temple of Juno. 
Thy instantly flew to arms, and the capitol was saved. 

923. Why are aquatic birds enabled to plunge into 
water and to emerge from it perfectly dry? 

Because their feathers are coated with an oily matter, 
which renders them not only impermeable to water, But 
repellant of it; so that no perceptible effect is produced by 
that element. 

924. Why are ducks and other water-birds more as- 
siduous in trimming their feathers than land-birds? 

Because by this means they anoint their feathers with 
oil, thus preventing them from getting water-soaked. 

Because their plumelets being of very close texture, any 
slight derangement in them is readily felt from the air 
getting access to the skin through the breach thence occa- 
sioned. 

925. Why do geese "waddle" in their walk? 
Because their legs are placed wide apart, so that they 

may act free of the sides in swimming; and the weight of 



286 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

' — "The swan with arched neck 

Between her white wings mantling proudly, rowes 
Her state with oarie feet." — Milton. 



the body in consequence swings from side to side as the 
bird walks, producing a zigzag motion. 

926. Why do ducks and geese make a gleeful noise 
upon the approach of rain? 

Because the bills of these birds are very sensitive; 
when immersed in water, or in mud rendered soft by the 
admixture of water, the functions of the bill are favored; 
but when the atmosphere is dry, the sensitive membrane 
stiffens, and becomes hard; and thus renders the circula- 
tion on the delicate tissues interrupted and laborious. 

927. Why is the bill of the duck more sensitive than 
the same organ usually in other birds? 

Because the whole of the duck tribe find their food 
more by the sense of touch than by that of sight, and the 
bill is favorably organized accordingly. It is covered by 
a sentient membrane, and the edges which come in contact 
are covered with papillae, and abundantly furnished with 
nerves, so that, when a duck dabbles in the water, the feel- 
ing of the bill enables it to distinguish eatable substances 
from the sludge and pebbles with which they are mixed. 

928. Why do swans frequent shallow waters and the 
sides only of deep lakes? 

The chief reason of this is, that they are vegetable 
feeders; and although their long necks enable them to 
reach the bottom at considerable depths, they never dive, 
and rarely feed upon the land or in any other mode than 
by floating upon the water. 

929. Why is a blow from the swans wing powerfully 
effective? 

The angle or elbow of the wing is the part with which 
it strikes and the motion is so rapid that the stroke is much 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 287 

"The swan uplifts his chest, and backward flings 
His neck, a varying arch, between his towering wings." — WORDSWORTH. 

more weighty than would at first be supposed from the 
mere volume of the striking instrument. 

930. When we consider that the effect of a stroke is made up of 
two elements, the quantity of matter and the velocity, and that the effect 
increases only as the quantity of matter, while it does so as to the 
square of the velocity, we can easily understand how soon rapidity of 
motion will make up for any inferior weight in the moving instrument. 
One-fourth the quantity of matter moving with four times the velocity, 
has an effect in the proportion of sixteen to four, that is, it has an 
effect four times as great. 

931. Why do swans in their migrations fly very high? 
They take a very high flight in order to avoid the 

attacks of the eagles and falcons, against whom their pow- 
ers of resistance would ill defend them if the latter got 
"the sky" of them. 

932. To everything above it in the air, the falcon is comparatively 
harmless; bv taking "the sky" of the falcon, the swan is enabled to per- 
form its migratory trip in safety. 

933. Why are swans in making their migratory flights 
governed by the state of the wind? 

Because, on account of their bulk and the weight of 
their closely set feathers, they cannot make way against the 
wind. Hence they almost invariably go with the wind; 
and wait, or even halt on their journey, if the wind is 
adverse. 

934. Why has the plumage and character of the swan 
remained for many centuries unchanged? 

Because of its wild nature; it is less subject to domesti- 
cation than almost any kind of bird, pining in captivity, 
and never breeding, unless allowed to do so within its 
own haunts. 

935. Why should the alleged "dying song" of the 
swan be rejected as fabulous? 

That the swan, usually mute, should utter a pleasing 
musical note at its death is contrary to all experience and 



288 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

4< A cormorant flew several times round the ship. As these birds are 

seldom, if ever, known to fly far out of sight of land, I 

judged that some was not far distant." — Capt. Cook. 

philosophy. That it should be true, indeed, would be in. 
contradiction to the whole analogy of nature, the voices of 
pain in animals, and especially at the hour of death, being 
without a single exception unpleasant to the ear. 

936. What peculiarity is there in the structure of the 
fool of the cormorant? 

The tarsi are stronger and more tendinous than in 
swimming birds; they are straighter set; the toes collapse 
more, and thus the birds can walk better, and also stand 

firm on the slippery points 
of rocks. The peculiarity 
in form is the web con- 
tinued to the hind toe, and 
the general position of the 
web being inwards rather 
than forwards, as may be 
seen in the annexed figure 
of the right foot df the 
cormorant, with the side 
outwards, which is turned towards the center of the birdo 

937. If the prey is on the surface, and small, these birds can capture 
it by a snap of the bill, and ascend again without losing the wing, in 
the same manner that the skimming birds take the greater part of their 
food: but if the prey is under the surface, and large, the wing must 
not only suspend its action, but be partially closed, and the bird must 
thus enter the water, using its wings as agents in again ascending. 

938. Why are stormy petrels enabled to run upon 
the surface of the water? 

Because the lightness of their bodies, and the action 
of the wind upon their wings, enable them with ease to 
assume this position during a storm. In calm weather they 
perform the same manoeuver, by keeping their wings just 
so much in action as to prevent their feet from sinking 
below the surface. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



289 



— "Such murmur fill'd 
Th' assembly, as when hollow rocks retain 
The sound of blustering winds, which all night long 
Had rous'd the sea." — Milton. 




939. There are few persons who have crossed the Atlantic that 
have not observed these wanderers of the deep skimming along the sur- 
face of the wild and wasteful 
ocean; flitting past the vessel 
like swallows, or following in her 
wake, gleaning their scanty pit- 
tance of food from the rough 
and whirling surges. Habited in 
mourning, and making their ap- 
pearance generally in greater 
numbers previous to, or during 
a storm, they have long been 
regarded by the ignorant and 
superstitious, not only as the 
foreboding messengers of tempests 

and dangers to the hapless mariner, but as wicked agents, connected 
somehow or other in creating them. "Nobody," they say, "can tell any- 
thing of where they come from, or how they breed, though (as sailors 
sometimes say) it is supposed that they hatch their eggs under the 
wings as they sit on the water." This mysterious uncertainty of their 
origin, and the circumstances above recited, have doubtless given rise to 
the opinion so prevalent among seafaring men, that they are in some 
way or other connected with supernatural powers in the air. In every 
country where they are known, their names have borne some affinity 
to this belief. They have been called witches, stormy petrels, the devil's 
birds, and Mother Cary's chickens, probably from some celebrated hag of 
that name; and their unexpected and numerous appearance has frequently 
thrown a momentary damp on the mind of the hardiest seaman. 

940. Why are sea-birds enabled to breast the rvaves 
in tempestuous weather? 

Because the waves, instead of rolling with the velocity 
of the wind (as is commonly imagined), roll very little. 
When we look at them from the shore and with a side 
wind, they seem to roll on, and they always appear to 
move slower in a fresh breeze. They heave and sink, the 
times being as the square roots of their lengths, so that, if 
a wave four feet broad changes from ridge to trough m 
four seconds, one of sixteen feet will change in eight sec* 
onds. Now, as the apparent forward motion is half the 
width, the four-foot wave will appear to move at the rate 
of rather less than a mile and a half in the hour, the 
sixteen-foot wave at rather less than three-quarters of a 
mile in the hour, which is very slow motion. 



290 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"By them there sat the loving pelican. 
Whose young ones, poisoned by the serpent's sting, 
With her own blood to life again doth bring." — Drayton. 



941. Thus in the case of single waves, the middle of the slope is a 

point of rest, on which 
4 the sea-bird can sit with 

little more difficulty than 
on the calm surface. This 
will, perhaps, be made 
plainer by the accompany- 
ing diagram, in which two 
birds are represented as 
being at rest on the wave: 
a b is the mean level or 
calm line of the sea, cut- 
ting both the black and 
dotted curve on the points o o. The figure 1 represents the ridge, and 
3 the hollow, at one end of the vibration; 4 the ridge, and 2 the hollow, 
as shown by the dotted line at the other. The bird at b on the turning- 
point is not moved either up or down; and as that point is alternately 
on the windward and the leeward of the wave, the wave keeps the bird 
from drifting in the first case, and shelters it in the second. 




942. Why has the pelican a large pouch attached to 
its lower mandible? 

The pouch answers 
nearly the same purposes 
that the crop does in birds 
which possess such an 
organ. The food is taken 
into it in "much larger 
quantities than the digest- 
ive stomach can receive 
at once; and is gradually 
received into the stomach 
as the process of digestion 
goes on. 

But the pouch serves 
another and a remarkable 
purpose. The pelican, 
though seeking its food in 
the sea, builds its nest at 
a distance from it, gener- 
ally in ruins which have 
become 'dry and waste; and this is the reason why the 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 291 

"Every copse 
Deep tangled, tree irregular, and bush 
Bending with dewy moisture, o'er the heads 
Of the coy quiristers that lodge within, 
Are prodigal of harmony." — Thomson. 

name of the pelican is so frequently associated in writings 
with that of the wilderness. 

The pouch, therefore, serves as a receptacle, in which 
the pelican conveys food to its young, in nests which lie 
remote from the shore. The food designed for the young 
becomes macerated or softened by the action of the pouch; 
and when the nest is situated in a very arid district, the 
old bird uses the pouch to carry water to its young. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

943. Why when birds migrate, do the old ones gen- 
erally precede the young ones? 

Because the moulting of young birds takes place at 
a later period than that of old ones; so that they are not 
sufficiently recovered from the weakness which attends this 
process, to endure the fatigues of a journey at a time 
when the old birds are ready ic undertake it. 

944. By what circumstances is the migration of birdo 
governed? 

The time at which birds of passage arrive in Britain, 
or quit it, varies according to the species. Natives of 
the northern countries of Europe come to us at the end of 
autumn or the beginning of winter; and in the first fine 
weather avoid our heat, as they had done excess of cold; 
they return to lay their eggs in the north. 

Other birds, which are born in our own country, and 
which may be considered as properly belonging to it, quit 
us in autumn; and after passing the winter in warm clim- 
ates, they revisit us in the spring, or perhaps, avoiding the 
moderate warmth of our summer, they emigrate to Arctic 



292 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The bird that hath been limed, with trembling wings misdoubeth every 
bush." — Shakspere. 



regions. Others again, natives of southern climates, come 
to the north to escape from the ardor of a summer's sun; 
and arrive in the midst of our own fine weather. 

There are also some which never remain in temperate 
climates, but merely pass through them on their annual 
migrations. The time of the arrival and departure of 
these travelers is generally fixed definitely for each species, 
and in many instances may be calculated upon to a day. 

945. Another fact not less curious in the history of birds is the 
power by which they direct their course in unknown countries, and dis- 
tinguish at immense distances the immediate vicinity of their nests. 
Swallows furnish a remarkable instance of this. These little birds 
make very long journeys at the time of migration; and yet, by a singular 
instinct, they know, in the following spring, how to find again the places 
where they had formerly established themselves, and always return to 
them. This fact has been ascertained by attaching to the feet of sev- 
eral swallows small silken threads to establish their identity. They 
build their first nest near that in which they were born; the chimney- 
swallow makes its nest every year above that of the preceding year, and 
the house-swallow establishes itself in. that which it had quitted the 
autumn before. Indeed, it has been known for the same couples to repair 
to their old nests, almost without taking the trouble to repair them, for 
eighteen years consecutively. Swallows show on other occasions, also, a 
singular power of directing themselves towards a particular place from 
which they are at a considerable distance. If a hen that is sitting is 
carried to a distance, confined in a cage, and liberty afterwards given to 
her, she first rises to a considerable height, as it to reconnoiter the 
country, and then flies in a straight line to the spot where she has left 
her brood. 

946. Why do birds when flying in flocks settle them- 
selves into a triangular body? 

Because the position so assumed is the one best fitted to 
cut the air with the greatest ease and rapidity. 

In this mode of flight, the leading bird, which divides 
the air in advance of the others, has the most arduous post; 
and in order to obtain relief, the bird occupying this place 
goes to the rear after a certain time, and is succeeded by 
another. 

947. Why do birds which take long flights usually 
fly high? 

It is supposed that high flight is less fatiguing, owing 
to a certain density of the atmosphere, which is best suited 



: 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 293 

"The wanderers of heaven 
Each to his home retire, save those that love 
To take their pastime in the troubled air, 
Or skimming flutter round the dimply pool." — THOMSON. 

to the weight and action of the wings of birds and which 
cannot be found nearer the earth. 

Another reason also may be, that the upper regions to 
which birds thus ascend are exempt from the momentary 
gusts and squalls to which the lower atmospheric strata are 
subject. 

948. Eagles are heavy birds, even for their powerful wings, and 
yet they are high fliers, although their abodes are at great elevations in 
the mountains. Wild geese and herons take the sky when they set out 
on long journeys. Rooks may be seen to adjust the height of their daily 
excursions from the rookeries to the distance at which the pasture upon 
which they feed lies; and the swallow tribe wheel about far more rapidly 
and gracefully when they fly high before rain, than when they skim the 
pools in fine weather. When birds are in long and swift flight, they 
acquire a momentum in proportion to their velocity, and the difference 
between their specific gravity and that of the air. In consequence of 
this momentum, they continue their progressive motion with muth less 
effort, which is of itself to explain why they prefer flying high. 

949. Why are birds which winter out of England sup- 
plied with a cover of black down under their feathers? 

Because black is a color capable of retaining the great- 
est amount of heat, and in this instance the object is, to 
keep in the heat arising from the heart and the circulation 
of the blood. 

S 

950. It is likewise remarkable that this provision is not found in 
larger birds — for which there is also a reason. Small birds are much 
more exposed to the cold than large ones, forasmuch as they present, 
in proportion to their bulk, a much larger surface to the air. It is 
necessary, therefore, that small birds should be more warmly clad than 
larger ones; and this appears to be the expedient by which that 
exigency is provided for. 

95 1 . Why are the birds which are brought alive to 
England from distant regions generally hard-billed? 

Because hard-billed birds subsist on seeds which are 
easily carried on board ship; while the soft-billed birds, 
which are supported by worms or insects, or as a substi- 
tute, fresh raw meat, can obtain neither in long voyages. 



294 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Meanwhile the tepid caves, and pens, and shoares. 
Their brood as numerous hatch, for the egg that soon 
Bursting with kindly rupture forth disclos'd 
Their callow young." — Milton. 

952. Why have some species of birds extremely soft 
bills? 

Because the class of birds thus furnished have to 
seize their prey quickly, as they often catch it while it is 
on the wing; though they do not fly after it, rapidity of 
motion both in darting at the food, and in opening and 
shutting both with firmness and sharpness at the tip, are the 
requirements of such a bill; and lightness in its general 
structure is essential to quick motion. These bills are in 
very many species, so thin and weak that they are not able 
to break the coat of a vegetable seed. 

953. Why do birds lay eggs? 

Because, to bear their 
young in any other manner, 
would encumber the body, 
and materially interfere with 
the active movements that 
are characteristic of the 
feathered tribes. As soon as 
an egg becomes large and 
heavy enough to be cumber- 
some to the bird, it is re- 
moved from the body, and 
deposited in a nest, which, 
in some respects, may be re- 
garded as an artificial rpomb. 

A shell impervious to air protects the germ of life 
within, until from two to twenty eggs have accumulated, 
and then, although laid at different intervals, the incuba- 
tion commences, and the young birds are hatched at the 
same time. 

954. Why do the eggs of birds contain tr»o distinct 
substances, the white and the yoh\? 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 295 

"The man who can see without pleasure a hen gather her chickens 

under her wing, or the train of ducklings follow their 

parent into the pond, is like him who has no 

music in his soul." — Knox. 



The white, or albumen, of the egg, supplies nourish- 
ment to the chick whilst it is in the shell; the yolk is em- 
braced in the body of the chick when excluded from the 
shell, and a duct leads from the membrane enclosing this 
mass of nutriment into the first intestine. Thus the chick 
is nourished, not only whilst enclosed in the shell, but also 
during its first feeble existence. 

955. When we hold an egg steadily, and chip it at the upper part, 
we find the yolk close to the shell, and on the upper surface a pale 

vesicle, 3. which contains the embryo chick. 
When the hen sits, the heat of her body 
developes the action of the living principle 
in the embryo, and on the second and third 
day a little zone of blood-vessels, 4, 4, 4, 
appears; these vessels run towards the em- 
bryo, and carry nourishment to it; and day 
by day we may watch its sensible growth. 
From the delicacy of this action, we may 
perceive how necessary it is that the embryo 
at an early period should be close to the 
breast of the hen, and not at the cold bottom 
of the nest. We shall now see how it is 
accomplished. — The yolk is a globe of nutri- 
tious matter, and the little vesicle with the 
embryo is involved in the surrounding mem- 
brane, and consequently is at the surface of 
the globe. If this globe had the axis of its 
revolution in the center, it would not move 
with the change of the position of the egg. But the axis being below 
the center, it must turn round with every change in the position of 
the egg, whether the globe be heavier or lighter than the surrounding 
white: were it heavier, it would revolve so as) to bring the embryo 
to the lower part of the shell — were it lighter, to the upper part of 
the shell. It is lighter, and the matter stands thus : — The yolk is, as 
it were, anchored at two points, and the attachments being below the 
center, and the yolk being lighter than the surrounding white, it 
revolves like a buoy, and the vesicle containing the embryo is thus 
kept always uppermost.* 

956. Why has the young chick a hard scaly substance 
upon its beak? 

This curious provision is designed to assist the young 
bird in breaking the shell, at a time when its bill is too 
soft for that purpose. 

The manner in which the young chick breaks the egg 

*Paley's "Natural Theology." 




296 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The yolke of the egge cannot be without the whyte, nor the whyte 

without the yolke; no more maye the clergy and the lordes 

be one without another." — Froissart's Chronicles. 



is one of the most wonderful operations of instinct. The 
instrument which it employs is a small protuberance on its 
upper mandible, called the bill-scale, which has no other 
use, and accordingly drops off soon after the bird is 
hatched. 



957. This bill-scale is provided with a sharp cutting edge, the use 
of which is to cut through the membrane which lines the shell. Were 





it not for this, the shell would break, while the membrane would stretch, 
and the chicken would still remain a prisoner. 

The egg-shell is formed by a solidified deposit from the blood- 
vessels of the egg-duct of the parent bird; but it is permeable to air, 
which is necessary to the life of the embryo. The shell is lined 
by two membranes: the one external and rough, so that it adheres to 
the shell; the other exceedingly smooth, so that it allows of the 
rotation of the contained parts. And, at one extremity of the egg, there 
is a little sack filled with air containing an unusual proportion of oxygen, 
which is employed in giving vitality to the awakening germ. 

958. Why can a recently hatched bird exist for man}) 
hours without food? 

Because a portion of the yolk of the egg yet remains 
in its body, and by that it continues to be nourished. 

959. The wisdom of this provision is obvious: had the first-born 
bird needed immediate food, it must either have been starved, or the 
mot»ier, whilst providing for it, must have deserted her other eggs, and 
thus destroyed the rest of her family; but, under this arrangement, 
the mother may, without injury to her first-born, continue to sit on her 
nest till all her little ones are hatched, which sometimes takes more 
than a day. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 297 

"Some to the rude protection of the thorn 
Commit their feeble offspring: the cleft tree 
Offers its kind concealment to a few, 
Their food its insects, and its moss their nests."- — Thomson. 



960. Why do the number of eggs laid by the differ- 
ent species of birds vary so considerably? 

The number of eggs laid by birds" is wisely and benefi- 
cently regulated by the difficulty or ease with which the 
particular kmd of food upon which the bird subsists may 
be obtained. Thus, large birds of prey which live upon 
flesh, such as eagles, vultures, and falcons, usually lay 
two eggs, rarely more than three, and frequently only one. 
Birds that live principally upon seeds and insects, and thus 
find abundance of food, not only lay a larger number of 
eggs, but often hatch two and three broods in the year so 
that these families increase rapidly. 

961. Why do birds select silk, cotton, wool, fur, and 
down as materials for lining their nests? 

Because these substances are non-conductors of heat; 
and as it is very essential that the nest should be kept 
perfectly warm, they could not possibly select more appro- 
priate materials for the purpose. 

962. In what manner do birds build and prepare their 
nests ? 

As the laying season approaches, the bird, conscious 
of the coming event, occupies herself in the construction of 
a dwelling, suited by its materials and form to the little 
beings to which she is about to give life. 

Such a structure must fulfill several conditions. In its 
magnitude and form it must correspond with the magnitude 
and number of eggs to be laid, and with the body of the 
mother who is to sit upon them. 

It must be so shaped as to £eep the eggs securely to- 
gether, and its materials must be soft, so as not to injure 
by undue pressure its tender occupants. * 

To prevent the escape of the warmth imparted by the 
mother, it must be thickly lined with non-conductors of 



298 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"When unobserved 
Pluck from the barn a straw, till soft and warm, 
Clean and complete their habitation grows." — Thomson. 

heat. All these conditions are fulfilled with the skill of a 
natural philosopher. 

963. The nests of the larger class of birds of hardier nature are 
of rude construction; but those of the smaller species display, in a 

remarkable manner, the qualities 
here indicated. The parents of 
the coming offspring, father and 
mother, co-operate in the con- 
struction of the nest, for the ex- 
ternal part of which straw and 
twigs are collected, and woven 
into a sort of basket-work. This 
not possessing the requisite dur- 
ability, and allowing, moreover, 
the air to penetrate, and the heat 
to escape, a quantity of fine clay 
is collected with considerable 
labor, and worked into a sort of 
mastic by means of a viscous 
fluid secreted by glands placed 
under the tongue of the bird. 
With this mastic, the parents 
plaster the interior of the nest, 
carefully stopping up every crevice and air-hole. The floor of the nest, 
however, formed by such plaster is necessarily hard, and would injure 
the younglings by its pressure. The parents, therefore, fabricate a 
carpet, which they spread upon the floor of the nest, over which they 
place a soft mattress, the materials of which consist of wool and Fairs 
taken from the backs of animals and the cottony parts of certain plants. 
The countless journeys and fatiguing labor necessary to accumulate hair 
by hair, and filament by filament, may be easily conceived. Sometimes 
the bird strips its own breast of natural down to form a bed for its 
young. Thus the eider duck provides for the comfort of its offspring, 
by taking from its own body part of that down which is sought for and 
collected at such a cost for the pillow of luxury. 

964. Why do some birds frequently) vary the materials 
of their nests? 

This is doubtlessly done for the purpose of assimilating 
the nest in appearance to surrounding objects, so as to 
accommodate their habitation to existing circumstances, and 
to secure it from observation. 

965. Why do some birds make their nests warmer 
than the nests of other birds? 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 299 

"Enjoy the spring of love and youth, 
To some good angel leave the rest; 
For time will teach thee soon the truth, 

There are no birds in last year's nest." — Longfellow. 

Because the first-mentioned are those which are nec- 
essarily a longer time away from their nests, while the lat- 
ter birds are those which procure their food more readily. 

966. Thus we see* the duck, and many aquatic birds, which have 
a voracious appetite, and have often to go over a considerable space 
of ground in search of food, and are consequently a long time absent 
from their nest, cover up their eggs with a quantity of down and feathers, 
in order to prevent them from being chilled. 

In like manner, the long- 
tailed titmouse, who, having 
from twelve to fifteen young 
ones to provide for, must nec- 
essarily be a long time away 
from them in search of food, 
so that she cannot herself im- 
part the necessary warmth to 
her brood by sitting on them, 
as most birds do, not only 
lines her nest with a profusion 
of the softest feathers and down, 
but makes it almost in the 
shape of a ball, with a small 
hole in the side to enter at, 
so that the young are effectu- 
ally protected from cold in their 
snug abode. 

The thrush, on the contrary, who can so. readily procure worms 
on a lawn, or in * a meadow, so that it is not necessary for both the 
parent birds to be absent in search of food at the same time, lines 
its nest with clay.. The nest of the rook, also, which, in an exposed 
situation, has but little warmth of, lining in it; but then the hen seldom 
leaves it, and is fed during the period of incubation by the male 
bird. 

967. Why will birds sometimes hesitate in their flight, 
when upon carrying building materials to their nest, they 
are observed? 

Because they are cautious not to betray the locality of 
their nests, the knowledge of which might subject them 
to future depredations. 

968. Mr. Broderip relates the following incident illustrative of 
this caution: — "As I was one day passing the National Gallery, I 
saw a sparrow fly down to the neighboring cab-stand and pick up a 
very long straw, with which it flew with some labor towards the 
building. The long streaming straw attracted the attention of some 




300 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Oft when returning with her loaded bill, 
Th' astonished mother finds a vacant nest, 
Robb'd by the hard hand of unrelenting clowns." — Thomson. 



of the pedestrians, who stopped and looked at the loaded little bird, 
which was directing its flight towards the portico of the Gallery; but 
finding its motions watched, it turned short round and perched with 
its straw on «ne of the window-sills, and the people then passed on. 
Presently it flew again towards the portico, but the people again stopping 
and looking, it came back to the window, until the second lot of gazers 
went their way. The little bird then started again with its straw 
towards one of the same pillars, and, cutting round it so as to avoid 
prying eyes as much as possible, bore it to the capital of one of the 
pilasters and disappeared, straw and all, into the snug nook made by 
i part of the projecting ornament, which it had chosen as the place 
/or making its nest. 

969. Why do the young birds of some species demand 
the parents' care for a longer period than others? 

The condition of young birds depends upon the state 
in which they emerge from the shell. The partridge and 
the plover come out of the shell in full activity, and may 
be said, in part at least, to find their own food in the very 
same hour. Even at this stage they run very rapidly, 
and have a clothing of down, which protects them from 
change of temperature during the early period of their 
existence. 

The rooky on the contrary, comes forth from the shell 
callow, and in a helpless state, so that it would perish if 
not fed by the parent bird ; and if not, in the early stage, 
sheltered by that bird during the night. Its feathers are 
not preceded by a downy coat, but first appear in little 
tufts issuing from those sheathes in which they are pro- 
duced. The young rook is accordingly fed by its parent 
for a considerable time, and does not perch apart from 
the nest; nor does it take flight, or in anyway provide 
for itself, until it is fully fledged. 

970. Why do male birds evince an affection for their 
offspring, while on the other hand, in many other species 
of the animal creation, the male parent neglects, and does 
not even recognize, its young? 

This exceptional instance of parental affection on the 
part of the male bird is a beautiful provision of Provi- 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 301 

"Encourag'd thus, she brought her younglings nigh, 
Watching the motions of her patron's eye, 
And drank a sober draught: the rest amaz'd, 
Stood mutely still, and on the stranger gazed." — Dryden. 

dence in accordance with the necessities and habits of the 
creature. Amongst birds, food for the young has in most 
instances to be brought from a distance, and much assiduity 
is required to collect it in sufficient quantity, the voracity 
of nestlings being almost insatiable. 

Therefore, the assstance of the male in this work is 
in most species almost indispensable. When the brood 
is numerous, it would be extremely difficult, if not impos- 
sible, for the female alone to procure the requisite supply. 

But in animals which suckle their young, the assistance 
of the male parent is not needed. 

971. The affection of both male and female birds for their young 
has been manifested in a remarkable degree in instances that have 
fallen under human observation. "When I was a boy," says Smellie. 
"I carried off a nest of young sparrows, about a mile from my place of 
residence. After the nest was completely removed, and while I was 
marching home with them in triumph, I perceived, with some degree 
of astonishment, both the parents following me at some distance, and 
observing my motions in perfect silence. A thought then struck me 
that they might follow me home, and feed the young according to their 
usual manner. When just entering the door I held up the nest, and 
made the young ones utter the cry expressive of the desire of food. 
I immediately put the nest and the young in the corner of a wire 
cage, and placed it on the outside of a window. I chose a situation 
in the room where I could perceive all that should happen without 
being myself ceen. The youn£ animals soon cried for food. In a short 
time both parents, having their bills filled with small caterpillars, came 
to the cage, and after chatting a little, as we do with a friend through 
the lattice of a prison, gave a small worm to each. This parental inter- 
course continued regularly for some time, till the young ones were com- 
pletely fledged, and had acquired a considerable degree of strength. I 
then took one of the strongest of them and placed him on the outside 
of the cage, in order to observe the conduct of the parents alter one 
of their offspring was emancipated. In a few minutes both parents 
arrived, loaded, as usual, with food. They no sooner perceived that one 
of their children had escaped from prison, than they fluttered about 
and made a thousand demonstrations of joy, both with their wings and 
with their voices. These tumultuous expressions of unexpected happi- 
ness at last gave place to a more calm and soothing conversation. By 
their voices and their movements it was evident that they earnestly 
entreated him to follow them, and to fly from his present dangerous 
state. He seemed to be impatient to obey their mandates; but, by 
his gestures, and the feeble sounds he uttered, he plainly expressed that 
he was afraid to try an exertion he had never before attempted. They, 
however, incessantly repeated their solicitations; by flying alternately 
from the cage to a neighboring chimney-top, they endeavored to show 
him how easily the journey was to be accomplished. He at last com- 
mitted himself to the air, and alighted in safety. On his arrival, 
another scene of clamorous and active joy was exhibited. Next day, I 



302 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"You curious chanters of the wood, 
That warble forth dame Nature's lays, 
Thinking your voices understood. — Wotton. 



repeated the same experiment, by exposing another of the young ones 
on the top of the cage. I observed the same conduct with the remainder 
of the brood, which consisted of four. I need hardly add that not one 
either of the parents or children ever afterwards revisited the execrated 
cage." 

Although sparrows are ordinarily regarded in a very indifferent 
light, they are, in addition to their utility, birds of a very kindly 
nature, living in habits of great sociability with each other. Several 
instances are related of their having been observed feeding the young 
of other birds which have been in a state of captivity; and there is one 
well-attested anecdote of a sparrow, which, having been caught by 
the leg by a piece of worsted, from which it could not extricate itseff, 
was tended and fed by some birds of its own species through a whole 
winter; and, when it was released, was greeted with evident marks of 
satisfaction by all its- former companions and friends. A farmer's 
servant placed a nest of young sparrows in a trapcage, and caught forty 
old birds, all coming with food in their mouths to feed the helpless 
young. A lady residing in the neighborhood of London hung out a 
cage near her balcony, in which was a young bird, and it was fed lor 
many weeks by sparrows. Similar instances of kindness and solicitude 
on the part of these birds might be multiplied to infinity. 

972. Why are small birds, such as those of the spar- 
row and swallow tribes, so numerous and widely diffused? 

Because they are the chief agents for keeping insect life 
within proper limits. Without them the myriads of minute 
creatures that would prey upon vegetables would so mul- 
tiply, that famine would be of frequent occurrence, and 
industry would meet only with a precarious reward. 

973. It appears from the papers, that in New Zealand the country, 
at particular seasons, is invaded by armies of caterpillars, which clear 
off the grain crops as completely as if mowed down by a- scythe. With 
the view of counteracting this plague, a novel importation has lately 
been made. Mr. Brodie shipped, three hundred sparrows, carefully 
selected from the best hedgerows in England. The food alone put on 
board for them cost £18. This sparrow question has been a long- 
standing matter of discussion in Auckland; but the necessity to farmers 
of small birds to keep down the grubs is admitted on all sides. There 
is no security in New Zealand against the invasion of myriads of cater- 
pillars, which devastate the crops. Mr. Brodie has already acclimatized 
the pheasant, which is abundant in the north. The descent from the 
pheasant to sparrows is somewhat of an anti-climax; but should the 
latter multiply, the greatest benefit will have been conferred on the 
country. 

974. Why have the different species of birds distinct 
voices, or cries? 

This provision has doubtless been made in order that 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 303 

"The gay troops begin 
In gallant thought to plume the painted wing, 
And try again the long, forgotten strain, 
At first faint warbled." — Thomson. 



the members of each species might make known their wants 
and dangers, and otherwise communicate with each other. 

That some of the notes of birds are a language designed 
to convey a meaning is obvious from the very different 
sound uttered by these creatures at particular periods; the 
spring voices become changed as summer advances, and the 
requirements of the early season have ceased: the summer 
excitements and informations are not needed in autumn, 
and the notes conveying such intelligence are no longer 
heard. 

The periodical calls of animals, the croaking of frogs, 
etc., afford the same reason for concluding that the sound 
of their voices by elevation, depression, or modulation, con- 
vey intelligence adapted to their wants and feelings. 

975. Rennie relates : — "We recollect having our attention once drawn 
to the loud scolding of a pair of chaffinches in a copse, a circumstance 
of very frequent occurrance during summer, but rendered peculiar in 
the instance in question by the birds darting down almost to the roots 
of the bushes at some distance from where we stood, from which we 
concluded their scolding was not directed to us. The loud 'pink, pink' 
of the chaffinches soon attracted to the spot a crowd of their woodland 
neighbors, among whom a redbreast took the lead, followed by a green- 
bird, a song-thrush, and about a dozen of the smaller summer birds, 
all brought together by curiosity to learn what the chaffinches were 
scolding about. From all of these clamorous creatures giving vent to 
the same expression of feeling, we concluded that some common enemy- 
had made his appearance among them; and, upon looking narrowly into 
the bushes, we perceived a pine-martin stealing along, occasionally 
throwing a sly, or rather contemptuous look at his vociferous railers, 
but otherwise continuing a careful prying search into every hole and 
bush for a nest of eggs or young of which he might make a breakfast." 

White, of Selborne, remarks: — "When the hen turkey leads forth 
her young brood, she keeps a watchful eye, and, if a bird of prey- 
appear, though ever so high in the air, the careful mother announces 
the enemy with a little inward moan, and watches him with a steady 
and attentive look; but, if he approach, her note becomes earnest and 
alarming, and her outcries are redoubled." In the instance of a cock 
bird expressing fear, or giving an alarm to the hen of the approach 
of danger near the nest, the tones seem to be varied so as to give 
her due notice either to keep close and still, or to make her escape 
with as much caution as she can. , 

976. Why is the plumage of female birds generally 
more somber than that of males? 

This would seem to be a provision made by providence 



304 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"She plumes her feathers, and lets grow her wings 
That in the various bustle of resort 
Were all too ruffled, and sometimes impaired." — MlLTON. 

w ' 

to favor the personal concealment of female birds, and con- 
sequently that of their young, from the depredations of 
birds of prey. It is remarkable that most birds that are 
under no apprehension of being attacked, such as eagles, 
owls, hawks, etc., the females are uniformly covered with 
plumage as rich as that of the males. 

977. Why is the plumage of young birds somber, arid 
less marked than when they become older? 

Because, if the young had their full plumage the first 
year, or when they quitted their nest, they would in their 
then feeble state be more exposed to be £f/Zec/ by birds 
of prey and other enemies. It seems, therefore, a benev- 
olent design that the more humble plumage should remain 
on them until they are better able to protect themselves. 

978. The activity and watchfulness of birds when they have young 
is most surprising. Dr. Macgillivray records the observations made 
by a friend on a pair of blue titmice when rearing their young. The 
parent birds began their labor of love at half-past three o'clock in 
the morning, and did not leave off till eight o'clock in the evening, after 
being almost incessantly engaged for nearly seventeen hours. Mr. Weir 
counted their various returns to the nest, and found them to be 475. 
Up to four o'clock, as a breakfast, they were fed twelve times; between 
five and six o'clock, forty times, flying to and from a plantation more 
than 150 yards from their nest; between nine and ten o'clock they fed 
their offspring forty-six times; and they continued at their work till 
the time specified, sometimes bringing in a single large caterpillar, and 
at other times two or three small ones. 

979. How is a beautiful provision of nature illustrated 
in the disposition of the feathers upon the body of a bird? 

The feathers are all placed in such a manner that the 
action of the wind from before shall tend to smooth them 
down. The shoulders and the front edges of the wings 
are the places, however, on which the beautiful applica- 
tion of the feathers is the most striking, as they are not only 
most difficult to fit from their greater curvature, but are 
those which are most exposed during flight. The feathers 
on these parts are so placed that, let the wind take what 
direction it may, it can hardly raise or ruffle them. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY, 305 

11 'Tis reigning noon; and, vertical, the sun 
Darts on the head direct his forceful rays. 
O'er heaven and earth, far as the ranging eye 
Can sweep, a dazzling deluge reigns." — Thomson. 

980. How is the varied coloring of the plumage of 
birds accounted for? 

The variation is supposed to depend upon the sun, the 
color being gay and glossy according as birds are exposed 
to the action of that luminary. Whether the bright colors 
of tropical birds are less sentient to the sun than the more 
sober hues of the birds of cold climates it is difficult to 
say; but the smooth surface and metallic luster must reflect 
the light, as well as decompose it by that refraction which 
shows the colors; we may, therefore, conclude that the 
variegated plumage of birds answers as a sort of protec- 
tion against the ardor of the sun in those climates where 
such protection is most needed.* 

981. The brighter colors of male birds may be in some degree 
accounted for upon this hypothesis: the male is more exposed to the 
sun than the female; his more active life and greater daring, her seasons 
of retirement and incubation, at once explain this. That light has great 
influence, not only in illuminating, but in developing the colors of 
bodies, is borne out by the fact that all night-flying birds and insects 
are of somber hues, while those which are active by day are, with only 
a few exceptions, more brilliantly arrayed. 

Possibly, also, the brighter colored male birds are more successful 
in getting mates, and thus transmitting this characteristic to their off- 
spring, than are dull-colored males. 

982. Upon what mechanical principles do birds main- 
tain a standing position? 

In standing, a base of sustentation must be given to 
birds of sufficient magnitude, and in such a position as to 
keep the line of direction of the center of gravity within it, 
without too fatiguing exertion of the muscles. 

983. This is accomplished partly by giving the leg such a structure 
that the tarsal bones, which extend from the foot to the body, have 
a sufficient length, and are inclined to the leg bones, so as to direct 
the foot forwards; while the body, on the other hand, assumes such 
a position that the spinal column is inclined- more or less upwards. The 
flexibility of the neck, which enables the animal to throw the head more 
or less backwards, and in bringing the center of gravity into the desired 
position, as shown in fig. 1, which represents the ibis. In the position 
of the bird here shown, the center of gravity is thrown a little behind 

* Partington's "Cyclopaedia." 



306 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"More certain was the crowing of the cock 
To number hours, than is the abbey clock; 
And sooner than the matin bell was rung, 
He clapp'd his wings upon his roost and sung." — Dryden. 



the center of articulation of the wings, and therefore nearer the center 
of the base of sustentation by the backward position of the head. In 
the case of birds, such, for example, as the penguin, jig. 2, having a 





short and nearly inflexible neck and legs, which are incapable of being 
advanced, the animal, when it stands, is obliged to assume the vertical 
position.* 

984. Why do many birds roost upon one leg? 
Because the heavier the body presses upon the bent 

joint, from the peculiar construction of the foot, the tighter 
the claws are pulled round the branch or perch; and it 
follows that the weight of the bird must pull more when 
it falls upon one set of muscles, than when it is divided 
between the two sets; a firmer and steadier position is by 
this means achieved. 

985. Why does the formation of the beak of birds 
indicate the substances they feed upon? 

Because nature has adapted the instrument to its em- 
ployment with such nicety that the forms of the beak are 
as various as the qualities of the substances used as food; 
and so close and invariable is this relation between the 
mechanical structure of the instrument of prehension and the 



Lardner's "Animal Physics." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



307 



"Sight is the most perfect and most delightful of all the senses. It 
fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with 
objects at the greatest distance, and continues the long- 
est in action without being satiated." — Spectator. 



aliment, that a practical naturalist can infer the one from 
the other with unerring certainty. 

986. Examples of the agreement between the formation of the beak 
and the food of the bird are furnished as follows: — Sea-birds, which feed 

on fish too large to be swallowed at 
a mouthful, are furnished with a large 
beak, hooked at the end. But this 
instrument is much longer, and there- 
fore less powerful, though sufficiently 
so relatively to their prey. When 
birds feed on such fishes and rep- 
tiles as are small enough to be seized 
and easily swallowed, the beak is 
•straight, still greater in length and 
resembling a pair of pincers, as those 
of the martin pecker, fig. 1. Birds 
living on insects as the bee-eater, 
fig. 2, have slender and very long 
beaks, either straight or very slightly 
hooked, except when they catch their 
prey in flight, as do the swallow and 
the goatsucker, fig. 3, in which the 
bill is short, broad, deeply cut, so 
as to enable them to present a large 
mouth to receive their prey. Birds 
which live on grain, on the con- 
trary, such as the sparrow, fig. 4, 
have a short, thick bill, con- 
vex above, or conical, and in 
general straight, the upper man- 
dible not projecting over the 
lower. A singular modification 
of this organ of prehension is 
presented in the case of the peli- 
can, which has a membranous 
receptacle, consisting of ^ a pouch 
or pocket, attached to its lower 
mandible, in which it collects 
prey, which it swallows afterwards at leisure. (See 942.) 

987. Why have the eyes of birds a greater facility 
for discerning near or distant objects than those of other 
animals ? 

Because, in the first place, birds in general procure their 
food by the aid of their beak; and, the distance between 
the eye and the point of the beak being small, it becomes 
necessary that they should have the power of seeing very 
near objects distinctly. 

On the other hand, from being often elevated much 
above the ground, living in the air, and moving through it 




308 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The eye is not that which sees; it is only the organ by which we 

see. The ear is not that which hears, but the organ by 

which we hear; and so on of the rest." — Reid. 



with great velocity, they require for their safety, as well as 
for assisting them in descrying their food, a power of see- 
ing at a great distance. 

988. Two peculiarities are found in the eyes of birds. The one 
is a bony, yet, in most species, a flexible rim or hoop, surrounding the 
broadest part of the eye, which, confining the action of the muscles to 
that part, increases the effect of their lateral pressure upon the orb, by 
which pressure its axis is elongated for the purpose of looking at very 
near objejcts. The other peculiarity is an additional muscle to draw, 
on occasions, the cystalline lens back, and to fit the same eye for 
the viewing of very distant objects. By these means, the eyes of birds 
can pass from one extreme to the other, on a scale of adjustment as 
convenient as it is remarkable. 

989. Why is the hearing of birds dependent upon the 
internal structure, rather than the outward development of 
the organ? 

Because, if the external ear existed as in quadrupeds, 
it would obstruct the rapid progress of birds through the 
air 9 and be inconvenient in other respects. This appendage 
is therefore withheld, but is amply compensated for by a 
peculiarity in the internal structure, which enables them 
to hear with perfect distinctness. 

990. Why do birds perch with their faces to the wind? 
Because, if a bird were to roost with its tail to the 

wind it would frequently be driven from its perch: the 
wind would, by turning the feathers, and even getting 
under the wings, have great power; and the action of that 
power would unbend the legs, and thereby loosen the feet 
From the perch. But, by perching with its head to the 
wind, the latter becomes a means of stability to the bird. 

991. The bird keeps its hold on the perch by tendinous elasticity; 
the flexure of the neck is beyond that position which would be repose 
in a quadruped, so that the tendons of* the extensors are tightened; and 
any cause which agitates the perching feet, at the same instant brings 
the neck into action, and extends, elevates, or depresses the head, to 
the exact extent which the balance requires. Thus, there is, in the 
very structure of the bird, a means of resisting any casualty that 
might drive it from its perch, and that without the exercise of any 
more volition than accompanies the breathing of a human being when 
asleep. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3D9 

"The starling, distinguishable from the rest of the sparrow tribe, by 

the glossy green of its feathers, in some lights, and purple 

in others, breeds in eaves of houses, ruins, hollow 

trees, cliffs, and high rocks." — Goldsmith. 

992. Why are birds enabled to sleep securely rvhen 
perched on the branches of trees? 

Because the claws of birds are so organized, that the 
flexor muscles pass over the joints of the \nee and heel in 
such a manner, that, when the latter bend, they necessarily 
press on the tendons of the muscles, and make them bend 
the toes; the weight of the body pressing down the thighs 
and legs, necessarily produces this action; and, as a conse- 
quence, the bird grasps, without effort, the branch on which 
it is perched, and maintains itself in a fixed position with- 
out watchfulness. 

993. Why do starlings frequently accompany rooks in 
their flight? 

Because rooks have a more discerning scent than star- 
lings, and lead them to spots productive of food. 

The superior power of finding food is owing to rooks 
having two large nerves which run down between the eyes 
into the upper mandible, which invests their beaks with a 
more delicate sensitiveness than other round-billed birds, 
and enables them to grope for their food when out of sight. 

994. Why are the necks of birds long, and easily 
moveable? 

Because the beak is generally the only organ of prehen- 
sion by which they pick their food from the ground; and 
the extent of the neck is augmented, in order to admit of the 
head being brought freely to the ground without incom- 
moding the body. 

995. How is the wisdom of the Creator shown in the 
structure of the head and neck of birds? 

In the heads of birds teeth are dispensed with, and, 
as a consequence, along with them, the thick and massive 
jawbones into which they must have been implanted, and 
which are replaced by a light strong bill 



310 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"To these, an overgrowne justice of peace, 

With a clarke like a gizzard thrust under each arm; 
And warrants for sippets laid in his own grease, 

Set o're a chafing dish to be kept warme." — B. Johnson. 

Hence mastication is very limited, and the muscles sub- 
servient to this function are proportionally small. Every- 
thing thus combines to render the head light, and conse- 
quently a long and slender neck is sufficient for its support 

Had it been necessary to sustain a heavier head at the 
extremity of a long neck, great muscular development in 
this region would have been required, and the weight so 
much increased, as to have materially diminished the pow- 
ers of flight Moreover, the heavy head at the extremity 
of the lever of the neck would have deranged the center of 
gravity, and in this way also have interfered with flight. 

996. Why does the breastbone form an important part 
of the organization of a bird? 

Because it imparts solidity to the whole of the frame* 
work, and supplies a wide base upon which the muscles of 
the wings are fastened down and steadied. The breast- 
bone also forms a kind of box, which, during the time the 
body is stretched out in flight, securely retains and supports 
the soft interior of the bird. 

The more the movements of the wings excite the great 
muscles which are spread over the inside of the breastbone, 
the more do those muscles brace and strengthen the frame 
of the bird. They bear its weight up to the wings, and 
the wings again, by their long arched form, lay it upon the 
air. Thus as the bird flies, it is almost insensible of the 
fact that its body is heavy. 

997. The^Jbreast-bone of a bird secures the whole length of the 
body, and the great central spire of that bone, called the keel, rises 
from it, so as to give lodgment and attachment to the great muscles of 
the wings. It will be easily understood that this keel is more largely 
developed in birds of passage, since its greater prominence implies 
strength of wing for long-continued flight. Under the breast-bone, and 
between the back-bone, is a considerable space, occupied by air-cells. 
These cells represent a curious provision for the extension of the body 
of the bird, independently of weight. The air does not only pass into 
the lungs of birds, but through them, so as to fill a series of cells, 
composed of fine membranes, which are interwoven with all the viscera. 
The heart is surrounded by such a cell. Two great cells are attached 
to the liver, and in the same manner all the viscera of the abdomen 



1 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3! 1 

"Thy style's the same whatever be thy theme, 
As some digestions turn all meat to phlegm." — Dorset. 

are interspersed with air-cells, and these all communicate. The air thus 
admitted into the interior of the body extends even into the bones. 
By inflating these cells, birds have the power of instantly rendering their 
bodies specifically lighter, and of rising upon the air with greater ease: 
when they descend, they exhaust the cells, and alight with greater ease, 

998. Why is the gizzard such an important organ in 
the structure of birds? 

Because it compensates for the absence of teeth, by 
triturating or grinding the food, so as to render it fit for 
digestion. Every particle of food which requires to undergo 
this operation, is submitted to the action of the two gristly 
surfaces which form a portion of the organ, and produce a 
rotatory motion on the food. 



999. In order to ascertain the peculiar powers of the gizzard, sev- 
eral experiments have been resorted to, some of which would appear 
at first sight to be cruel, but which in the end proved to be harmless. 
"Twelve strong tin needles," says Spallanzani, "were firmly fixed in a 
ball of lead, the points projecting about a quarter of an inch from the 
surface. Thus armed, it was covered with a case of paper, and forced 
down the throat of a turkey. The bird retained it for a day and a half 
without showing the least symptoms of uneasiness. Why the stomach 
should have received no injury from so horid an instrument I cannot 
explain: the points of the twelve needles were broken off close to the 
surface of the ball, except two or three, of which the stumps projected 
a little higher. Two of the points of the needles were found among 
the food. The other ten I could not discover, either in the stomach or 
the long track of the intestines; and therefore concluded that they 
had passed out." 

In another experiment, which, without knowing the previous facts, 
we might justly have deemed still more cruel, Spallanzani tells us he 
fixed twelve small lancets, very sharp both at the point and edges, in 
a similar ball of lead. "They were such as I use for the dissection 
of small animals. The ball was given to a turkey cock, and left eighteen 
hours in the stomach, at the expiration of which time that organ was 
opened; but nothing appeared except the naked ball, the twelve lancets 
having been broken to pieces; I discovered three in the large intestines, 
pointless and mixed with the other contents; the other nine were missing, 
and had probably been voided. The stomach was as sound and entire 
as that which had received the needles. 

"Two capons, of which one was subjected to the experiment with 
the needles and the other with the lancets, sustained them equally well. 
My next wish was to know how much time elapsed before the beginning 
of the fractures; and by repeated experiments on turkeys I found that 
these sharp bodies begin to be broken, and lose their shape, in two 
hours. This, at least, happened in two individuals of the species: in 
one, four of the lancets, and in the other, three of the needles, were 
broken within that space ; the others were blunted, but continued fixed 
in the balls." 



312 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"He that has humanity, forewarn'd, will tread aside, and let the reptile 
live." — Cowper. 



1000. Why do birds moult, or change their feathers, 
periodically? 

The moulting of birds is a process analogous to the 
nutrition, expenditure, and decay, which occurs in all ani- 
mal bodies. When an atom, or it may be an organ, has 
fulfilled its functions, it dies; and when completely dead, 
it separates and falls, because a dead substance cannot co- 
exist with a living. 

Moulting is nothing else but this natural death of some 
part of the bird, in consequence of the development of other 
interior parts, which are being matured to carry on the 
functions of the parts undergoing decay. 

1001. We find the germs of leaves, flowers, and fruits, in vegetables, 
and the hairs, feathers, scales, horns, epidermis, etc., in animals increas- 
ing and developing themselves in spring, to flourish in succession, at least 
for the duration of the summer. But at the approach of the autumnal 
equinox, plants and animals, being more or less exhausted by the vast 
expenditure of their vital forces in the great work of reproduction, and 
also by the increased energy with which those vital forces acted in 
proportion to the surface, their external functions begin to be enfeebled, 
and by so much the more as the heat of the sun diminishes. Then these 
external parts, these vernal productions, cease to receive aliment through 
the body: they have, besides, arrived at the fall term of their augmenta- 
tion, and can admit of no further nutriment. Taey dry up, wither, are 
detached, and fall. Thus is produced, sooner or later, the fall of flowers, 
leaves, and fruits, and the change of hairs, feathers, horns, epidermis, 
scales, etc. 



CLASS III.— REPTIUA. 

ORDER I. — CHELONIA. 

1 002. Why is the first order of reptiles called chelonia? 

From a Greek word meaning a tortoise; the order in- 
cluding the various species of tortoise and turtle. They 
have horny cases, are destitute of teeth, have thick fleshy 
tongues, well developed eyes, and their limbs differ from 
an elephantine club foot, to feet divided and webbed. 






KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 31 3 

"A tortoise, introduced here (Lambeth Palacej in 1633. lived till the 

year 1753, and possibly might have continued much 

longer, had it not been for the carelessness 

of the gardener." — Penant. 

1003. Why are reptiles so called? 

The term is derived from a Latin word repo, I creep; 
since the imperfection of the legs and feet in some cases, 
and the total absence of these members in others, neces- 
sarily entail a creeping movement to enable the animal to 
move along the ground. 

1004. Why are turtles and tortoises covered with hard 
external shells? 

Because they are destitute of bony skeletons "within, and 
the horny covering is made to answer all the purposes of 
the usual osseous structure. 

But, besides this, they are defenseless animals, except 
so far as the shell affords a retreat to the head, legs, and 
tail, which are withdrawn within the shell upon the occur- 
rence of any danger. 

1005. It may appear at first sight that there is a great affinity be- 
tween the armor, or rather box, in which the tortoise is enclosed, and 
the coat of mail with which many quadrupeds are covered, as, for instance, 
the armadillo (416). But there is this important difference: the coat 
of mail in the latter quadruped is a simple horny addition to the 
skin itself, resting upon, and supported by, processes of the skeleton: 
whereas the osseous shell of the tortoise is part and parcel of the 
skeleton itself, which is so modified as to protect the internal organs, 
enclosing them as in a casket, which is covered either with horny plates 
variously arranged, or with a tough leathery skin.* 

1 006. Why do the cheeks of tortoises and turtles ap- 
pear to he frequently distended? 

Because they swallow air instead of breathing it by the 
ordinary process. The jaws being firmly closed, the cav- 
ity of the mouth is enlarged by the drawing down of the 
root of the tongue; and into the vacuum thus formed the 
air rushes through the nostrils. The free part of the 
tongue is then applied to the posterior openings of the 
nostrils, so as to stop them; the gullet is also closed, the 
root of the tongue is elevated, the broad muscles of the 

* Knight's "Museum of Animated Nature : " 



314 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"A lizard' s body lean and long, 
A fish's head, a serpent's tongue."- 



-Merrick. 



throat contract, and the air is forced down the windpipe 
into the lungs, which become filled by a repetition of the 
process. 

1007. Why have tortoises and turtles no teeth? 

Because, for cropping the tender vegetation upon which 
they live, teeth are less adapted than the serrated horny 
coverings with which they are provided, and by which they 
are enabled to crop and mince the vegetable aliment upon 
upon which they subsist. 



ORDER II. SAURIA. 

1 008. Why is the second order of reptiles denominated 
sauria ? 

From a Greek word meaning a lizard. The mouths 
of these animals are always armed with teeth, and the toes 
are generally furnished with claws. They have all a tail 
more or less long, and generally very thick at the base. 

1009. Why does the crocodile, which devours birds, 
beasts, and even human beings, allow one species of bird, 
the zic-zac, to be on familiar terms with him? 

It is said that when the crocodile comes on shore, he 

opens his jaws, and this 
bird enters and swallows 
the leeches which are 
found about the animal's 
jaws and teeth, and which 
have collected there ow- 
ing to the creature being 
for so long a time in the 
water; the relief afforded 
by haying the leeches 
withdrawn, induces the 
crocodile not only to tol- 
erate the advances of the bird, but to encourage them. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 315 

"An aligator stuffed, and other skins of lll-shap'd fishes." 

Shakspere. 



1010. This is a disputed point in natural history, and is doubted 
simply on account of its apparent improbability, rather than from any 
evidence which has been adduced to the contrary. The following anec- 
dote, however, related by Mr. Carzon, goes far to confirm this seemingly 
incredible account: — "I had always," says Mr. Curzon, "a strong predi- 
lection for crocodile shooting, and had destroyed several of these dragons 
of the water. On one occasion, I saw a long way off a large one, twelve 
or fifteen feet long, lying asleep under a perpendicular bank, about 
ten feet high on the margin of the river. I stopped the boat at some 
distance; and, noting the place as well as I could, I took a circuit inland, 
and come down cautiously to the top of the bank, whence, with a 
heavy rifle, I made sure of my game. I had already cut off his head 
in my imagination, and was considering whether it should be stuffed with 
its mouth open or shut. I peeped over the bank : there he was 
within ten feet of the sight of the rifle. I was on the point of firing 
at his eye, when I observed that he was attended by a bird called the 
zic-zac. It is of the plover species, of a grayish color, and about the 
size of a small pigeon." The remainder of the narrative corroborates 
the fact. 

101 1. Why do both jaws of the crocodile move? 

Because its habits of life render it necessary to be able 
to seize its prey with great rapidity — the prey often lying 
on the surface of the water. The power of moving both 
jaws facilitates this kind of seizure, by bringing the level 
of the water surface instantly and equally within the action 
of the upper and lower jaws. 

1012. Why is the alligator so called? 

Either from the Spanish and Portuguese lagarto, mean- 
ing a lizard, or from the Latin lacertus, the arm, in ref- 
erence to the arm-like appearance of the legs. 

1013. Why are the monitor lizards so called? 

It is said that when the larger reptiles approach them 
they utter a cry of alarm, which gives warning to other 
creatures of the dangerous approach of the crocodile and 
the alligator. 

1014. Why has the chameleon the power of chang- 
ing its color? 

This faculty has been attributed to the protective in- 
stinct of the animal, by which it seeks to render itself less 



316 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Wak'd by his warming jray, the reptile young 
Come wing'd abroad; by the light air upborne, 
Lighter, and full of soul." — Thomson. 

observable by enemies, by assuming the color of the bed 
upon which it lies. 

1015. The means by which this change of color is accomplished is 
a matter of doubt. There are two distinct colors of pigment present, 
beneath the transparent skin, and the visible color seems to depend 
upon which pigment or which combination of the two is extended to 
view. The chameleon, though long an object of interest and study, still 
presents many remarkable characteristics demanding explanation. 

It appears, from the observations of Dr. Weissenborn, who had a 
chameleon for some time in his possession, that the nervous currents 
in one-half of the animal may go on independently of those in the other 
and that the animal has two lateral centers of perception, sensation, and 
motion, besides the common one in which must reside the faculty of con- 
centration. "Notwithstanding the strictly symmetrical structure of the 
chameleon, as to its two halves, the eyes move independently of each 
other, and convey different impressions to their centers of perception. 
The consequence is, that when the animal is agitated, its movements 
appear like those of two animals glued together. Each half wishes to 
move its own way, and there is no concordance of action. The chameleon, 
therefore, is not able to swim like other animals; it is so frightened if 
put into water, the faculty of concentration is lost, and it tumbles about 
as if in a state of intoxication. On the other hand, when the creature 
is undisturbed, the eye which receives the strongest impression propa- 
gates it to the common center, and prevails upon the other eye to 
follow that impression, and direct itself to the same object. The 
chameleon, moreover, may be asleep on one side, and awake on the 
other. When cautiously approaching my specimen at night with a candle, 
so as not to awaken the whole animal by the shaking of the room, the 
eye turned towards the flame would open and begin to move, and the 
* corresponding side to change color, whereas the other side would remain 
for several seconds longer in its torpid and changeable state, with its eye 
shut." 

1016. Why has the agama the power of inflating its 
body with air? 

The use of this peculiar endow- 
ment is not clearly understood, 
though it is believed that the ani- 
mal has the power of bringing down 
insects, by directing upon them a 
smart current of air. Assuming this 
to be the case, the function is anal- 
ogous to that possessed by certain 
. fishes, in the chaetodon family, of 
bringing down insects by emitting 
jets of water. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 317 



"Lo 


! the 


green 


serpent, 


from 


his 


dark 


abode, 


Which e' 


en Imagination 


fears 1 


to read, 




At 


noon 


forth 


issuing, 


gathers 


up 


his train 


In 


orbs 


immense." — Thomson. 













ORDER III. OPHIDIA. 

1017. Why is the third order of reptiles termed ophidia? 

From the Greek ophis t 

meaning a serpent or snake. 
The order includes all the 
serpents and snakes, what- 
ever may be their nature 
or modes of life. They 
are the only vertebrated 
animals which have the 
power of infusing a poison 
into wounds, though many 
of them are destitute of this 
power. 

1018. Why are serpents unprovided Tvith feet? 

One reason, at least, may be found for this depriva- 
tion in the fact that, as they are adapted for fulfilling 
certain ends within particular geographical limits, they are 
confined to those limits by the absence of locomotive 
organs ? 

If creatures like the boa and the rattle-snake could 
spread themselves from the hot to the temperate latitudes, 
and diffuse themselves generally through these, they would 
prove serious pests, and formidable enemies to a great num- 
ber of useful races. 

1019. Horv are serpents enabled to move along the 
ground without feet or legs? 

Locomotion is effected by the contractile force of the 
muscles, alternately drawing up and extending the body, 
combined with the adhesion of the tegumentary covering 
with the ground. 

The animal attaching to the ground a point near its 
head contracts its body, or bends it into an arch, bringing 



31 S KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Snakes breathe their amorous sighs in hisses. 
This dialect no creature misses." — Sherburne. 

forward the hinder part, some point of which is then at- 
tached to the ground liberating at the same time the fore 
part. 

The posterior point of attachment then becoming a fixed 
point, the animal throws forward its length by the action 
of its extensor muscles, after which it again attaches a 
point in the foremost part of its body to the ground, and 
repeats the same process. 

1020. Why do serpents let themselves fall from trees 
without sustaining injury? 

Because their peculiar form, and the elasticity of their 
parts, prevent concussion from such falls. On reaching 
the ground, the shock they sustain, instead of proving hurt- 
ful, impels them forward, and serves as a stimulus to their 
subsequent movements. 

1 02 1 . How does the snake throw its whole body from 
the ground in a \(xnd of leap? 

This is performed by placing the body upon the ground 
in form of a twisted spiral, the folds of the anterior part 
forming the center of the figure; then suddenly extending 
itself in the manner of a spring, it throws itself to a 
distance. 

1022. This movement may sometimes be seen in very hot .weather 
by the banks of the stream, where snakes often lie basking with their 
bodies coiled in the manner just described, the neck and head being 
directed from the center to the circumference above the folds. This 
position seems to be preferred to any other by the snake while reposing; 
and it is one from which the animal is enabled to perform the most rapid 
movement upon a sudden surprise; for, in a wood, from this position 
they will leap by an instantaneous effort into the brushwood, and thus 
elude our most energetic efforts to secure them, or even to ^get sight 
of them; but by the side of a stream this movement may be better 
seen, for on a sudden approach they will leap from the bank into the 
midst of the stream, swim to the opposite side, ascend the bank, and 
secrete themselves. 

1023. Why is the rattlesnake provided with a rattle 
at the extremity of its tail? 

The use of this curious apparatus is unknown, though 
so obvious a contrivance cannot be without its specific uses. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 3 1 9 

"Where at each step the stranger fears to wake 
The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake." — Goldsmith. 

It has been alleged that it is a signal of warning to 
keep away animals that might hear it, from the deadly 
venom of the snake. But it is altogether opposed to the 
economy of nature to endow an animal with means to 
scare away the prey upon which it must subsist. It is 
not unlikely that, as the snake does not climb trees, nor 
move about with the graceful evolutions of other tribes, 
but glides along the ground in low and secret places, the 
rattle is used as a call to members of its own species. 

1024. Why have serpents the power of fascination? 
Being deficient in organs of locomotion, the power of 

fascination has probably been bestowed upon them as a 
compensatory endowment. Otherwise, what chance would 
there be of a snake bringing down a bird, or pursuing suc- 
cessfully a swift rabbit? 

1025. Why are the Indian snake-catchers enabled to 
charm snakes? 

It seems to be well-established by observation that 
certain kinds of serpents are exceedingly impressible T>y 
musical sounds. A similar fact has been noted with respect 
to seals, rats, mice, and other animals. But serpents ap- 
pear to be impressible in a higher degree, and the Indians, 
who study their habits, learn the exact notes by which the 
serpents are most affected, and acquire the power of what 
has been termed "charming them." 

ORDER IV. — AMPHIBIA. 

1026. Why is the fourth order of reptiles called am- 
phibia ? 

From two Greek words, meaning both and life. Am- 
phibials are animals formed to live on land, and to be 
also capable of living for a long time under water. Their 
hearts have but one ventricle, their blood is red and cold; 
and they have such a command of the lungs, as for a 
considerable time to suspend respiration. These peculiar- 



320 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Onely these marishes and myrie bogs, 

In which the fearfull ewftes do build their bowres, 
Yield me an hostry 'mongst the croaking frogs." — Spenser. 

ities, which characterize the amphibia in particular, apply 
also generally to all the order of reptiles. 

1027. Why when the frog is breathing does it k ee P 
its mouth firmly shut, and also continually raising and 
lowering the skin between the bones of the under jaw? 

Because, owing to its 
peculiar structure, it can- 
not breathe with the mouth 
open; and if it were forc- 
ibly kept open, the animal 
would die of suffocation. 




1028. The explanation of 
this apparent anomaly is as fol- 
lows: — The frog receives the air 
which is to be conveyed to the 
lungs through the nostrils, but 
there is no vacuum or cavity 
formed by the expansion of the 
thorax, so that the mere pressure 
of the atmosphere following the 
expansion, does not, in this instance, inflate the lungs. An effort is 
required after the air is taken into the body, and that is performed chiefly 
by the tongue. The depression of the skin of the lower jaw lasts much 
longer than the elevation, because there is a double operation to be 
performed — the expulsison of the air already in the lungs, and the re- 
admission of fresh air into the body. When that skin first descends, 
there is a contractile action of the abdomen, by which the air in the 
lungs is driven out; and when that is all expired, the abdomen returns 
to its natural state; but being without bones it cannot form a vacuum, 
and thus the lungs could not be inflated but by some other action capable 
of overcoming the resistance of their cells. 

1029. How are the showers of frogs, which are often 
reported as taking place, accounted for? 

The explanation of this apparent phenomenon is as fol- 
lows: It is generally about the month of August, and often 
after a season of drought, that these hordes of frogs make 
their appearance ; the animals have been hatched, and quitted 
their tadpole state, and native pond. Finding the fields hot 
and parched, they seek the coolest and dampest places, and 
conceal themselves under clods and stones, where, on account 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 321 

"I had rather be a toad, and live upon the vapour of a dungeon, than 
keep a corner in the thing I love for others' 

uses." — Shakspere. 



of their dusky color, they escape notice. When the rain 
descends, they come forth in hundreds from their hiding 
places, and hence are supposed to have fallen to earth in 
a shower. 

1030. How is the bull-frog enabled to make the bel- 
lowing noise from which it take its name? 

This sound is produced by certain portions of the larynx 
of the animal being convex externally and concave internally, 
so that when the entrance to the larynx is closed, they form 
a dome over the windpipe, which, from its vibratory proper- 
ties, has been compared to a kettle-drum. 

1 131. How is the croaking of the frog produced? 

This peculiar sound, which is supposed to be expressive 
of pleasure, is produced by means of the air which it 
forces into the globular vocal sacs, which are situated near 
the corners of the mouth, and causes to vibrate in them. 
The female being without these organs, produces only a 
slight noise. 

1032. Why are frogs frequently found dead in dusty 
roads ? 

Because their skin co-operates with their feeble lungs 
in the aeration of the blood. This internal respiration can 
only take place when the skin is bedewed with moisture. 
For this purpose the frog is endowed with certain glands 
that secrete a fluid to moisten the skin. In dusty roads 
this fluid becomes clogged with dust, and the respiration 
of the skin being stopped, the animal dies. 

1033. Why are toads useful in greenhouses and othei 
horticultural buildings? 

Because they destroy ants; and devour earwigs, cater- 
pillars, small beetles, slugs, and all insects which chance to 
fall in their way. 



322 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Thou cold-blooded slave, 
Hast thou not spoke like thunder on my side? 
Beene sworne my soldier, ". . • 
And *dost thou now fall over to my foes?" — Shakspere. 

1 034. Why are toads enabled to live embeded in rock 
or stone? 

Because their skins are capable of effecting the neces- 
sary changes in the system when the function of the lungs 
is altogether arrested; and, requiring an inconceivably small 
portion of air, they are enabled to live by the supply which 
penetrates the pores of the material in which they are 
embedded. 

If the many stories to this effect are true, the principal cause must 
be an ability on the part of these animals to go into a state of almost 
complete cessation of living activities. As if a clock in good condition, 
fully wound up to run, should be stopped by holding the pendulum. 
Life in some organisms seems to be susceptible of almost complete abey- 
ance for a time without losing the power to start up again when condi- 
tions become favorable. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

1035. Why have most reptiles a kind of moveable lid 
at the aperture of their nasal organs? 

Reptiles are thus provided, so that when they are under 
water, the organ of smell may be exercized or protected 
as circumstances may require. The proper vehicle of the 
impression of smell in reptiles is air; and this they draw 
through their nasal cavities during inspiration, effecting the 
operation by depressing their lingual bone, and thus enlarg- 
ing the cavity of the mouth. 

1036. Why can reptiles abstain for an extraordinary 
length of time from food and drink? 

Because the languid circulation of their blood, their 
rare secretions, low temperature, and scaly and impermeable 
envelope, render their losses by evaporation from the sEn 
very inconsiderable; so that the frequent supplies which are 
wanted in other animals, to compensate for the incessant 
waste, are not required for reptiles. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 323 

"Forthwith the sounds and seas, each creek and bay, 
With frie innumerable swarme, and shoales 
Of fish, that with their finnes and shining scales 
Glide under the greene wave." — Milton. 



1037. Why are reptiles termed cold-blooded? 

Because they do not produce enough heat to have a 
temperature sensibly higher than that of the surrounding air. 

The whole of their body is heated or cooled at the 
same time as the surrounding medium; and the changes of 
temperature which they thus experience have great influence 
upon all their functions. 

A warmth of from 1 05 deg. to 1 20 deg. is soon fatal 
to most of these animals ; and cold tends to depress all their 
natural operations. In winter, most of them could no 
longer digest the food introduced into their stomach, and 
do not take nourishment. Their respiration also diminishes 
in a most remarkable manner. Thus, during the cold sea- 
son, the action of the air on the skin is sufficient for the 
maintenance of the life of the frog; and the lungs of one 
of these animals may be removed without producing as- 
phyxia; whilst in summer they have need not only of the 
pulmonary respiration, but also of their cutaneous; and 
death soon occurs when the air does not act on the skin, or 
is excluded from the lungs. 



CLASS IV.— PISCES. 

ORDER I. LEPTOCARDIA.* 

1 038. Why is the first order of fishes called leptocardia ? 
From two Greek words signifying small and heart, 

with reference to the rudimentary formation of the heart, 
which, indeed, is said to be absent, and to consist entirely 
of the contractile power of the arteries. 

1039. This order includes only a single small fish, which rarely 
attains a length of two inches, and which presents so many remarkable 
characters that its position in classification has been much disputed. 

* The classification here pursued combines the systems of Cuvier and 
Agassiz, as blended by Mueller. 



324 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Lie there, Lycaon: let the fish surround 
Thy bloated corpse, and suck thy gory wound." — Pope. 



This is the Amphioxus lanceolatus, a little, slender, transparent creature, 
found on sandy coasts in various parts of the world. Its body is of the 
lamprey form, with a narrow membranous border. The vertibral column 
is represented by a gelatinous cord, which supports the axis of the 
nervous system; the latter terminates anteriorly by a rounded extremity, 
without any signs of a brain. The head bears a pair of eyes, which are 
connected with the end of the nervous axis by short filaments, and there 
is an apparent rudiment of an olfactory organ. The mouth is at the 
front of the head, where it forms an oval opening without jaws, but 
surrounded by a number of cartilaginous points; the oval cavity leads 
into a large branchial sac. By the action of cilia, with which these 
cavities are lined, currents are produced in water, the water passing off 
through numerous slits in its walls into the general cavity of the body, 
whence it escapes by an opening in the ventral surface.* 

ORDER II. CYCLOSTOMATA. 

1 040. Why is the second order of fishes called cyclos? 
tomata? 

From two Greek words meaning a circle and a mouth, 
in reference to the circular mouth which distinguishes the 
members of the order. 

1041. They are of an elongated, cylindric, and worm-like form; the 
skin is tough and destitute of scales; the pectoral and ventral fins are 
wanting; the skeleton is cartilaginous; breathing orifices, little sacs that 
open exteriorly by separate vents; heart muscular, composed of two 
chambers. 

1042. Why has the lamprey a circular, cartilaginous 
mouth? 

Because it lives by suction, some species living upon 

insects and worms: others 
upon the juices of the 
larger fishes. One species, 
the hag, contrives to enter 
the mouths of fishes, and 
extracts their substance by 
sucking. Fish that have 
been hooked on lines, and 
allowed to remain in the water for some time afterwards, 
have been attacked by these creatures, and when drawn 
up have been found to consist of little more than empty skin. 

* Orr's "Circle of the Sciences." 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



325 



"Let riches never breede a lofty minde, 
Let nature's giftes make no man ouer blinde, 
For these are all but bladders full of winde." — Turberville. 



1043. Formerly the lamprey was a fish of considerable importance. 
It was taken in great quantities in the Thames, and sold to the Dutch 
as bait for turbot, cod, and other fisheries. Four hundred thousand 
have ' been sold in one season for this purpose at the rate of forty 
shillings a thousand. From five pounds to eight pounds a thousand has 
been given; but a comparative scarcity of late years, and consequent 
increase in price, have obliged the line fishermen to adopt other substances 
for bait.* 

ORDER III. TELEOSTIA. 

1044. Why is the third order of fishes named teleostia? 

From two Greek words signifying perfect, and bones, 

in reference to the perfect bony skeletons which they possess. 



1045. In fishes of this order 
the skull is always of a very 
complicated structure, composed 
of numerous bones; the gills are 
supported upon free bony arches, 
and the water passes away from 
them by a single aperture, pro- 
tected by bony gill covers. The 
mouth is always formed by a 
pair of jaws, and usually armed 
with teeth. 



The ORDER is again divided into six Sub-orders: I. 
Physotomata; 2. Anacanthina; 3. Pharyngognatha; 4. 
Acanthoptera; 5. Lopobranchia; 6. Plectognatha. 

Sub-order I. — Physotomata. 

1046. Why is the sub-order physotomata so named? 
From the Greek phuaso, to blow, or inflate, in allusion 

to the possession of an air-bladder, connected with the 
pharynx by a duct, which only occurs in these fishes, of all 
the teleostia. 

1047. The fishes belonging to this group are usually furnished with 
a complete series of fins, which are always composed entirely of soft 




* Yarrell's "History of British Fishes." 



326 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Genius, piercing as the electric flame, 
When waked in one, in others wakes the same." — Scott. 



rays, with the exception of the first ray in the dorsal, anal, and pectoral 
fins, which are sometimes spinous. The ventral fins are sometimes want- 
ing; when present, they are always abdominal in position. The skin is 
sometimes naked, at other times more or less covered with bony plates; 
in most cases, however, it is thickly clad with scales. The air bladder 
is connected with the pharynx by a sort of duct. The sub-order includes 
most of the important fishes that are sought for as food by man, and 
one species which possesses electrical powers. 

1048. Why has the gymnotus the power of communi- 
cating electric shocks? 

For the purpose of defending itself from enemies, and 
also to benumb its prey, which is generally swifter in mo- 
tion than the eel, until the latter can overtake it. 

1049. That these are the reasons why this animal is endowed with 
this wonderful power there can be no doubt, since the uses made of 
the electric force by the eel have been well ascertained. 

The electric eel is not only one of the most extraordinary of fishes, but 
it is one of the most wonderful productions of living nature. And 
yet it is no more wonderful than the serpent which fascinates its prey; 
than the bird which baits with insects the branches of shrubs, in order 
to attract small birds thither, than the fish which emits jets of water to 
knock down flies; or the spider which constructs a beautiful snare, and 
waits silently and motionless the entrapment of its victim. 

These various means to the same end, with which different animals 
are endowed, illustrate the boundless resources of the Creative Wisdom. 

The apparatus in which the electric power is lodged is a very 
singular one, consisting of four organs, which are placed longitudinally 
in the tail of the fish. The organic part of this singular apparatus 
consists of a countless assemblage of cells, which have some analogy 
to the divisions of a galvanic battery. 

The nature of the shock transmitted appears to be galvanic or 
electrical. Nearly the same substances are conductors and non-conductors 
of the shock, as are conductors and non-conductors of common electricity. 
The eel may, with perfect impunity, be touched with a glass rod, or the 
hand wrapped in a dry silk handkerchief; but metals, water, and almost 
all moist bodies conduct it readily. If the animal is touched with one 
hand only, that is, if it is touched only in one place, no shock is felt; 
but if it is touched in two places considerably apart from each other, the 
shock is very violent. 

The manner in which the force is applied is as follows: — The 
gymnotus approaches as nearly as possible its intended prey; the latter 
endeavor to escape, when the gymnotus discharges its battery, which 
has been found to be powerfully effective at a distance of fifteen feet. 
The creature thus benumbed is incapable of any further effort, and 
the eel swims leisurely towards and devours it. 

The degree of force which can be thus exerted is considerable. 
Horses entering ponds where electric eels abound are frequently knocked 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 327 

"Barefoot may no neighbour wade 
In thy cool streams, wife nor maid, 
When the spawns on stones do lye, 
To wash their hemp, and spoil the fry." 

— Beaumont and Fletcher. 



down by its violence; and the Indians of South America, where the 
gymnotus abounds, are frequently drowned while bathing, being stunned 
by the shock from these animals. 

It is remarkable that in tropical lands there are found the choicest 

fruits, the most beautiful flowers, the grandest plumage, the richest 

perfumes; and there, too,, the rattle-snake has the deadliest poison, and 
the gymnotus its strange electrical power.* 

1050. Why is the herring so called? 

From the German hoer, an army, with reference to 
the numbers in which they move from place to place. 

1051. Why do herrings migrate? 

The migrations of the herring are analogous to those 
of certain birds. Impelled by unfailing instinct, the herring 
leaves the depths of our surrounding seas to deposit its 
spawn in the shallower waters of the coast, there to be 
vivified by the genial influence of the sun; and after ac- 
complishing its purpose, it retires to the remoter deeps. 

1052. The herring is essentially a northern fish; seldom has it been 
found so far south as the Bay of Biscay, in Europe, or the coast of 
Carolina, in America. Like plants that, flourishing in certain climates 
only, become fewer and more stunted the nearer they approach the 
limits of their zone, herrings decrease in number and size as they 
approach their assigned southern boundary — those caught on the southern 
snores of England being considerably smaller than those which frequent 
the coast of Norway. Thus it is that about the month of July, the 
grand array of herrings is found to the northward of the Shetlands, in 
distinct columns five and six miles long, three and four miles broad. 
Pressing for the shallows, they drive the sea before them in a con- 
tinuous ripple. Sometimes they sink down fathoms deep for a few 
minutes, then again rising te the surface, sparkle in the sun like a 
prairie strewn with diamonds. Nor even during the calm summer night 
is the scene less brilliant, from the intense scintillations of phosphoric 
light exhibited by the countless myriads of moving fish. The quantity 
of life in these shoals would be completely beyond belief if we did not 
recollect that 36,000 eggs have been counted in the spawn of one herring. 

1053. Why do herrings swim in shoals? 
Because, like migratory birds and quadrupeds, large 
numbers of them are acted upon by the same necessity at the 

* Pennant, 



328 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The scaly herd, a numerous throng, 
Beneath her silver billows glide along, 
Whose still increasing shoals supply 
The poor man's wants, the great one's luxury." — Somerville. 

same time; they therefore move together by a common im- 
pulse, to fulfill an uniform end. Herrings, and all fishes 
that are known to swim in shoals, are solitary except when 
the necessity for spawning approaches, and then the prevail- 
ing need brings them together in enormous numbers. 

1054. No adequate conception can be formed of the myriads of her- 
rings and pilchards that move together in what are called shoals, which 
often extend many miles in length and breadth. In some of the lochs, 
or arms of the sea, on the west coast of Scotland, herrings have often 
been cast ashore by storms in such numbers that they have been used 
as manure for land. 

Upon one occasion, the bellman of Crail, at the eastern extremity 
of the peninsula of Fife, was sent round with the bell to announce that 
any one who chose to go to the shore would get a cart-load of live 
herrings for a shilling. This passed without much notice; but, by-and- 
bye, the bellman again went round, proclaiming that any one who chose 
might go and obtain a cart-load of live herrings for nothing. This 
announcement, of course, excited some speculation; but it was speedily 
followed by a third one — that any one who would be kind enough to go 
to the shore of Crail would get a shilling jor taking away a cart-load 
of herrings. The explanation was, that a storm which was then pre- 
vailing continued to drive large shoals of herrings upon the shore; so 
that, when left by the ebb-tide, they lay in countless thousands for at 
least a mile and a half or two miles along the coast. The reason for 
the latter announcement was a fear on the part of the authorities of 
Crail, that such a quantity of animal matter remaining to putrify on 
the beach would taint the atmosphere, and cause disease. 

1055. Why are few herrings and pilchards caught in 
the cold months? 

Because they then resort to deep waters, beyond the 
reach of nets. They keep to the bottom of the sea, where 
they feed upon small crustaceous animals and a minute 
species of shrimp not larger than a flea. 

This being their natural food and mode of feeding, 
it is impossible to take; them with a hook, though a rare 
instance of a pilchard being hooked with a worm is upon 
record. 

Pilchards are, however, frequently found in the stom- 
achs of large voracious fishes, caught during the colder 
months. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 329 

— "Before that, a plump vintner 
Kneeling, - and offering incense to his deitie, 
Which shall be only this, red sprats and pilchers." 

— Beaumont and Fletcher. 



1056. What is the difference between the pilchard and 
the herring? 

The pilchard is a different species, thicker and smaller 
than the herring; the scales large, while those of the herring 
are small. The posterior edge of the dorsal fin is nearly 
over the center of gravity, so that when a pilchard is held 
by this fin, the head rises, and the tail droops down, which 
is the reverse of what happens with the herring. 

The pilchard is a more southerly and more local fish 
than the herring, being found chiefly on the Cornish coasts; 
and it is rare that one is found beyond Dover, or even in 
the narrow part of the Channel. 

1057. What are sprats? 

Sprats are a distinct species of fish, though of the herring 
family, of which those usually sold are full grown. 

1 058. Why do sprats usually appear soon after herrings 
have spawned? 

Because sprats approach the shore for the like purpose 
of spawning, their season being a little later than the her- 
rings. The resemblance of the sprat to the herring, and 
their becoming abundant soon after the herring season, has 
led to the erroneous supposition that sprats are young her- 
rings. 

1059. What are whitebait? 

They are a distinct species * and not, as generally sup- 
posed, the fry of a larger kind. 

1060. About the end of March, or early in April, whitebait begin 
to make their appearance in the Thames, and are then small, apparently 
but just changed from the albuminous state of very young fry. In 
September, specimens of whitebait, the young fish of the year, may be 
taken as long as four or five inches but they are even then mixed with 

* CI ape a alba. Yarrel. 



330 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The lusty salmon, then, from Neptune's wat'ry realm, 
When as his season serves, stemming my tideful stream." — Drayton. 



others of very small size, as though the roe had continued to be deposited 
throughout the summer. In their habits they appear to be similar to 
the young of the herring, always keeping in shoals, and swimming occa- 
sionally near the surface of the water, where they often fall a prey to 
acquatic birds. Whitebait live upon minute Crustacea. 

1061. What are anchovies? 

Anchovies are a genus of soft-finned fishes,* belonging 
to the family of herrings, but separated from that genus by 
certain structural differences of habit and haunt. 

1062. The habits of all the herring family are similar: *they are 
migratory, and swim in shoals; and, with the exception of the shad, 
and those species which frequent the great freshwater lakes and do not 
migrate to the sea, they all remain in salt water. The anchovies inhabit 
waters nearer to the equator than the herrings, and may be said to take 
up the occupation of the sea where the herrings leave it off. 

1 063. Why do salmon arrive in some rivers earlier than 
in others? 

It has been suggested that this depends upon the vary- 
ing warmth of the waters; those highland rivers which arise 
from large lochs being all early, owing to the warmer tem- 
perature and great mass of their sources; while those rivers 
which are swollen by melting snows in the spring months 
are later in their fish-producing season. 

1064. Why do female salmon in the spawning season 
ascend the rivers before the males? 

Because the former are impelled by a necessity which 
probably operates in a higher degree with them than with 
the latter: the males, therefore, follow the females, and 
pair, and attend them during their spawning, and afterwards 
become, as it were, their escort to the sea. 

1065. The sexes of fishes, if we except the sharks and rays, offer no 
very decided external characters. In the males, the respiratory organs 

*Engraulis encrasicolus. 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY; 331 

"The salmon, (which at spring forsakes 
Thetis' salt waves,) to look on him, 
Upon the water's top doth swim." — Sherburne. 



occupy more space than in the females; and the abdomen is larger in the 
females than in the males; the males may be distinguished by their some- 
what sharper and more pointed head, the greater length of gill cover, 
and the body, from the dorsal fin downwards, being not so deep com- 
pared with the whole length of the fish. 

The organs of reproduction consist of two elongated oval lobes of roe, 
one on each side of the body, placed between the ribs and the intestinal 
canal; the lobes in the female called hard roe, contain a very large number 
roundish ova, or eggs, enclosed in a membranous bag. In the male, the 
lobes of roe are smaller than in the females, and have the appearance of 
two elongated masses of fat, which are called sojt roe. In the spawning 
season, these soft rows become fluid, and are voided during the time' of 
spanwing, the ova of the female being impregnated thereby. 

1066. Why do salmon, when either ascending or de- 
scending rivers, halt in the brackish water where fresh and 
salt water mingle? 

By so doing, they accustom themselves gradually to 
the change of element which they have to undergo. And 
here they obtain a release from numerous parasitic animals, 
those of the salt water being destroyed by contact with fresh, 
and vice versa. 

1067. Why is the flesh of the salmon red? 

It has been assumed by Dr. Knox, that this redness is 
owing to the peculiar food upon which the salmon subsists 
when at sea — consisting of the eggs, of various kinds of 
small marine animals. 

Salmon are known to eat, also, sand-eels, small fishes, 
and various diminutive marine animals. Mr. Morrison 
stated before the Highland Society, that he had taken salmon 
within flood mark, some of which had two, and others three, 
full-sized herrings in their stomachs. 

1068. What circumstances give rise to the various va- 
rieties of trout? 

It is probable that there are not only varieties, but that 
there is more than one species of river trout. But when 
we consider geologically the various strata traversed by rivers 
in )heir course, the effect these variations of soil must pro- 



332 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Lure 
From his dark haunt, beneath the tangled roots 
Of pendant trees, the monarch of the brook." — Thomson. 

duce upon the water and the influence which the constant 
operation of the water is likely to have upon the fish that 
inhabit it; when we reflect also on the great variety of food 
afforded by different rivers, we shall be able to assign very 
probable reasons for the variations both in size and color 
which are found to occur. 

1069. Lord Howe remarks, that "There are two considerable streams 
which take their rise at no great distance from each other, the Whiteadder 
and the Blackadder, the latter tributary to the former. The Whiteadder 
from head to foot flowing along a very rocky and gravelly bed, while the 
Blackadder (Blackwater) rises in the deep mosses near Wedderlea, and 
the Dorrington laws (high hills), and flows for about half its course 
through a rich and highly cultivated district. The trout of Whiteadder 
(Whitewater) are a beautiful silvery fish, but good for nothing; those of 
the other dark, almost black, with bright orange fins, and their flesh 
excellent. Nothing can be more various than the appearance of the 
trout of these two rivers; and surely nothing can be more easier at once 
to see the cause of this difference." 

1 070. Why do young pike frequently appear in ponds 
where there were none before? 

Because the spawn of the pike is covered with a sticky 
viscous fluid; this adheres to the plumage of water-birds, and 
is by them borne into new waters, causing the unexpected 
and somewhat unaccountable appearance of pike in new 
waters. 

1071. Why do smaller fish at certain seasons appear 
to be familiar with the pike, while at others they avoid 
his presence? 

Because the pike, which is remarkable for its voracity, 
nevertheless undergoes periods of abstinence. During the 
summer months their digestive functions are somewhat torpid, 
and in warm sunny weather they lie basking in a sleepy state 
for hours together. The smaller fish appear to be aware 
when this abstinent state of their foe is on him; they are 
then less alarmed at his presence and may be seen swimming 
round him with indifference.* 

* Blaine's "Rural Sports." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 333 

"The goodly well grown trout I with my angle strike, 
And with my bearded wire I take the rav'nous pike." — Drayton. 

1 072. Why does the pike undergo this state of torpidity? 

It is remarkable that this peculiarity in the animal econ- 
omy of the pike differs materially from the habits of other 
fishes, which, after the emaciation from the effects of spawn- 
ing, require an increase of food to repair the exhaustion. 
But with the pike, the return of appetite appears to be 
suspended: a wise provision; for, were this fish as voracious 
as usual, few of the small fry which are then abundant would 
escape, and the stock of fish would be materially reduced. 

1073. Why are "pike" called also "jack" ? 

These are verbal distinctions referring to the size and 
age of the same fish. When the fish does not exceed four 
or five pound weight, it is called in England "a jack" ; an ^ 
when above that weight it is a "pike" 

1 074. Why is the pike exceedingly voracious at certain 
seasons ? 

Because it is a fish of rapid growth, and consequently 
vigorous digestion. The young fry grow rapidly, attaining 
two pounds weight in the first year; and they gain from 
two to three pounds weight every subsequent year. 

Besides, the enormous amount of exercise which the pike 
takes produces a great expenditure, and creates a corre- 
sponding demand for food. There is no more active fish: 
it sometimes darts through the water with the speed of an 
arrow. 

1075. It has been offered in illustration of the great digestive powers 
of the pike, that after in part swallowing a fish little smaller than itself, 
those parts that have entered into the stomach are dissolved with amazing 
rapidity, while those in the mouth and throat which are yet entire make 
a constant progress downwards as the process of digestion makes way 
for them. 

The pike has always been remarkable for extraordinary voracity. 
Eight pike, of about five pounds weight each, consumed nearly eight 
hundred gudgeons in three weeks; "and the appetite of one of these pikes," 
says Mr. Jesse, "was almost insatiable. One morning I threw to him, 
one after another, five roaches, each about four inches in length; he 



334 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The lavish slave 

Six thousand pieces for a barbel gave; 

A sestrice for each pound it weigh'd, as they 

Gave out, that hear great things, but greater say." — Duke. 

swallowed four of them, and kept the last in his mouth for about a 
quarter of an hout, when it also disappeared." Digestion in the pike 
goes on very rapidily, and they are therefore most expensive fish to main- 
tain. In default of a sufficient quantity of fishes to satisfy them', moor- 
hens, ducks, and indeed any animals of small size, whether alive or dead, 
are constantly consumed; their boldness and voracity are equally 
proverbial. Dr. Plot relates, that at Lord Gower's canal, at Trentham, 
a pike seized the head of a swan as she was feeding under water, and 
gorged so much of it as killed them both; the servants perceiving the 
swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the 
boat, and found both swan and pike dead. Gesner relates that a pike in 
the Rhone seized on the lips of a mule that was brought to water, and 
that the beast drew the fish out before it could disengage itself. Walton 
was assured by his friend Mr. Segrave, who kept tame otters, that he had 
known a pike in extreme hunger fight with one of his otters for a carp 
which the otter had caught, and was then bringing out of the water; 
proving the old adage, that, "it is a hard thing to persuade the belly, 
because it has no ears." A woman in Poland had her foot seized by a 
pike as she was washing clothes in a pond; and the same thing is said to 
have happened at Killingsworth pond, near Coventry. The head keeper 
of Richmond Park was once washing his hand over the side of a boat in 
the great pond in that park, when a pike made a dart at it, and he had 
but just time to withdraw it. Mr. Jesse adds, that <z a gentleman now 
residing at Weybridge, in Surrey, walking one day by the side of the 
River Wey, near that town, saw a large pike in a shallow creek. He 
immediately pulled off his coat, tucked up his shirt-sleeves, and went into 
the water to intercept the return of the fish to the river, and to en- 
deavor to throw it out upon the bank by getting his hands under it. 
During this attempt, the pike, finding he could not make his escape, seized 
one of the arms of the gentleman, and lacerated it so much that the marks 
of the wound are still visible."* 

1076. Why is the barbel so called? 

From the Latin barbalatus, meaning barbs, or beards, 
in reference to the appendages to its lower jaw. 

1077. Why is the first ray of the dorsal fin of the 
barbel deeply serrated? 

The serrations arise from certain additions to the ray, 
which impart a greater degree of strength to it. This in- 
creased strength facilitates the movements of the fish in the 
rapid currents and mill streams which it frequents. 

* Yarrell's "British Fishes." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 335 

"The dainty gudgeon, roache, the minnow, and the bleak, 
Since they but little are, I little need to speak." — Drayton. 

1078. Why has the barbel four wattles, or barbs, on 
its lower jaw? 

The barbel, as well as devouring small fish, bores in 
the loose soil for slugs and worms, and these wattles serve as 
feelers, in the pursuit of food. 

1079. Why may small fish be seen attending the barbel 
while it bores in the soil? 

Because they eat the minute animalcules thrown up 
from the soil by the movements of the barbel. 

1 080. Why, when angling for roach, is it necessary to 
try the water at all depths? 

Because, being miscellaneous feeders, roach swim at 
various depths; and, being gregarious, they move in shoals: 
so that at one level there may be plenty of fish, and at 
another none at all. 

1081. Why is the bleak commonly called the water 
swallow ? 

Because it sometimes occupies one part of a river, then 
takes its departure to another; the deeps, the shallows, and 
the surface, are alternately their resort; and they further 
resemble swallows in their nimbleness when in pursuit of 
prey, and particularly in the catching of flies. 

1 082. Why has the roach a very small mouth without 
teeth? 

The roach lives principally upon insects and fresh-water 
mollusca, which it finds adhering to the weeds; but which 
it would be unable to obtain were it not for this peculiar 
structure of the mouth. 

1083. Why does the shanny habitually hide itself be- 
hind stones, rocks, etc. 

Being destitute of a swimming-bladder, this fish is con- 
fined to the bottom, where it takes up its residence on a rock 



336 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY.' 

"Their scaly armour's Tyrian hue, 
Through richest purple to the view, 
Betray'd a golden gleam. "^-Gray. 

or stone, from which it rarely wanders far, and beneath 
which it seeks shelter from ravenous fishes and birds. 

1084. When the tide is receding, many of these fishes hide beneath the 
stones, or in pools, but the larger individuals quit the water, and, by the 
use of the ventral fins, creep into convenient holes, rarely more than one 
in each, and there, with the head downward, they wait for a few hours, 
until the return of the water restores them to liberty. If discovered or 
alarmed in these chambers, they return by a backward motion to the 
bottom of the cavity. 

1085. How do gold and silver fish kept in globes 
subsist upon what appears to us to be water only? 

Because the water abounds in animalcules, which, al- 
though invisible to the human eye, are visible to the eyes 
of fish, and consumed by them as food. 

1086. The necessity for frequently changing the water in which gold 
and silver fish are confined is thus made obvious enough; for if this 
precaution is neglected, the fish being deprived of their food must event- 
ually die. 

1087. Why do gold fishes k e Pt in vases so frequently 
come to the surface of the water? 

When the water becomes vitiated, the fishes come to the 
surface to swallow air; after the air has been changed, they 
may be observed to reject it again by a kind of eviction, and 
seek the surface once more for a fresh supply; so that in 
this way they are enabled to alleviate the evil consequences 
which result from the unhealthy state of their surrounding 
medium. 

Sub-order II. — Anacanthina. 

1 088. Why are the fishes of the sub-order anacanthina 
so called? 

Because they are without the sharp spines which sup- 
port the fins of other fishes; these organs in the anacanthina 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 337 

"And o'er the ocean's crystal mirror, 
Taught the unnumber'd scaly throng 
To trace their liquid path along." — Moore. 

being arranged upon soft rays. The word is derived from 
a, "without, " and acantha, a "spine," or "thorn." 

1089. These fishes also present a difference in the structure of the 
air-bladder, which, instead of communicating with the throat by a duct, 
as is the case in the physostomata, is here more completely closed, and 
there is no connection between the interior part of the bladder and the 
throat. 

1 090. Why have the sand-eel and the sand-launce a 
projecting lower jaw? 

Because it is the habit of these fishes to bury themselves 
in the sand, and by the sharpness and muscular power of 
the jaw, and the slenderness of their bodies, they are able 
to bury themselves in wet sand five or six inches deep with 
great rapidity. 

1091. Why is the cod found in great abundance upon 
the coast of Newfoundland? 

Because in that region there exist vast submarine moun- 
tains upon which crustaceous and molluscous animals are 
abundant. These constitute the natural food of the cod. 

1092. Why does the skin of a sole act as a clearer for 
coffee ? 

Because it contains a large proportion of albumen, 
which, being driven from the skin by the action of hot water, 
afterwards coagulates, and fixes and precipitates the floating 
grains of coffee. 

1 093. Why are soles and other flat fish destitute of air 
bladders? 

Because, being bottom fish, and seldom elevating their 
range in the water, they do not require an apparatus, the 
purpose of which is to vary the specific gravity of the mov- 
ing body. 

1 094. Why do dead fishes usually float? 

It appears to be a creative design that when these in- 



338 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY, 

"Here's a very fat carp, shall we dress you a brace? 
Would you choose any soles, or a mullet, or place?" — Cambridge. 

habitants of the deep die in any other manner than as prey 
to larger species, they shall rise to the surface, and be pre- 
sented as food to sea birds, the scavengers of the sea f 

The bodies of fishes are always so near to the specific 
gravity of water, that the slightest development of gases in 
their tissues, which would arise from the first stage of de- 
composition, brings them to the surface. 

1095. Why are bottom, or flat fishes, more commonly 
found floating than others? 

Because, being occupants of the bottom of the sea, their 
bodies half sunk in the earth, and, concealed by the unity 
of their color \vith that of the bed upon which they lie, they 
are less liable to be preyed upon than other fishes. 

The peculiar shape of their bodies is also a great protec- 
tion to them, since they cannot be swallowed whole, as is 
the case with many fishes. 

Larger numbers of flat fish, therefore,* may be supposed 
to die from natural causes than is common with other species. 
Hence they are more frequently found floating dead than 
other kinds of fish. 

1096. Why do soles swim upon their sides? 

Because their eyes are placed upon one side only, by 

which, being bottom fish, 
they are able to lie upon 
the ground, and look up- 
ward for their prey. For 
a relative reason, too, their 
upper sides are dark* and 
of the color of the bed 
which they inhabit, while their undersides are white. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 339 

"Of fishes — every size and shape, 
Which nature frames of light escape, 
Devouring man to shun." — Smart. 

Sub-order III. — Pharyngonatha. 

1097. Why is the third sub-order designated pharyn- 
gonatha ? 

The name is derived from pharynx, the pharynx, the 
muscular fang at the back part of the mouth; and gnathos, 
the jaw, indicating that the pharyngeal bones are united. 

1098. This sub-order includes an assemblage of fishes of diverse 
forms, in which there are both soft and spinous rayed; the pharynxed 
bones of this sub-order are completely united, so as to form a single bone, 
which is usually armed with teeth. The air-bladder is always com- 
pletely closed.* 

1099. Why is the garfish usually called the mackerel 
guide ? 

Because it commonly approaches the shore to spawn, 
a little prior to mackerel doing so. Hence the popular idea 
that the garfish guides mackerel to the shore. 

1 100. Why is the parrot fish so called? 

Because of the peculiar hooked formation of its mouth, 
and the brilliancy of its colors. 

1101. Why has the parrot fish rounded jaws and 
scale-like teeth? 

Because they browse on newly-formed layers of stony 
corals, digesting the animal matter therein contained, and 
setting free the carbonate of lime in a chalky state. Their 
jaws and teeth possess immense strength. 

Sub-order IV. — Acanthoptera. 

1 1 02. Why is the fourth sub-order called acanthoptera? 

From acanthos, a thorn, and pterygion, a fin, — mean- 
ing thorn-finned. One of the most distinguishing features 
of these fishes is, that the spinous rays of their fins consti- 
tute formidable defensive weapons. 

* Orr's "Circle, of the Seieaeee." 



340 \ KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"The west part of the land was high browed, much like the 
head of a gurnard.'* — Hackluyt. 

1103. The number of fishes belonging to this sub-order is exceed- 
ingly great, and they present a considerable diversity of structure. 

1 1 04. Why do the spinous defensive weapons of fishes 
turn backwards? 

Because their enemies 
attack them from behind; 
the direction of the sharp 
spines is therefore most effi- 
cient for their protection. 




1105. Why are the 
Indian gurnards called 
"flying fishes"? 
Because, when pursued by the dolphin, or other large 
creature of prey, they spring from the sea, in which action 
their large pectoral fins support them upon the air, in the 
manner of a parachute. Their action, however, is not that 
of flying, but springing from the sea. 

1 1 06. Why are the chaetodons remarkable for bril- 
liancy of colors? 

These are tropical fishes, 
and, like other animals of the 
tropics, remarkable for their 
beauty, which may be attrib- 
uted in this, as in other in- 
stances, to the intense action 
of the sun, although the na- 
ture of that action cannot be 
explained. 

The chaetodons have been 
described as occupying a similar place in the tropical seas 
to those which parrots occupy in tropical forests: they even 
excel the parrots in brilliancy while living. All the colors 
have a metallic luster, and though some of them are of one 
very intense color, as golden, yellow, ultra-marine, or rich 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



341 



"Thick in yon stream of light, a thousand, ways, 
Upward and downward, thwarting, and convolv'd, 
The quivering nations sport. — Thomson. 



bronze, when the fish is at rest; yet, when it moves, they 
are irridescent, and sparkle with gem-like luster. The 
chaetodon striatus is sometimes called the zebra, on account 
of its beautiful stripes. 

1 1 08. What peculiarity does the structure and habits 
of globe fishes present? 

These fishes possess the power 
of distending themselves into a 
globular form, by inflating with 
air a large sac contained in the 
abdomen. When thus dis- 
tended, they float along the 
water with the back down- 
wards, swimming onwards by 
means of their pectoral fins. 
They are covered with a series 
of large spines ; which are raised 
up when the body is thus in- 
flated, so as to form a very effi- 
cient means of defense. 

1 1 08. Why is the upper jaw of the sword-fish elong- 
ated into a blade-like weapon? 

The sword-fish inhabits seas where the monsters of the 





deep, whales, sharks, and threshers abound. Here these 
monsters battle with each other; and the sword-fish, being 



342 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Straight as above the surface of the flood 
They wanton rise, or, urg'd by hunger, leap, 
Then fix, with gentle twitch, the barbed hook.*' — Thomson. 

among the smaller of the races, is armed with a weapon 
which makes him as formidable as the larger and more pow- 
erful kinds. 

1109. The sword-fish living at least in part, upon the bodies of fishes 
larger than itself, uses its formidable weapon to lacerate and divide their 
substance into convenient morsels. 

The prolonged snout forms an excellent cut-water when the fish makes 
its arrow-like darts through the water; and the powerful tail is calculated 
to drive home the weapon with enormous force. 

1110. Why is the "John Dory 9 so called? 

This name evidently arises from a corrupt pronuncia- 
tion of a French term, designating the color of the lighter 
parts of the fish, which is yellow, with metallic reflections, 
and, therefore, styled jaune doree, or golden yellow. 

1 1 1 1 T Why are some fishes provided with an apparatus 
resembling a boy s sucker? 

Because, by pressing this organ against any surface they 
are enabled to retain their hold without using teeth or fins; 
and by this means retain their position in the water at the 
same time that they catch their food. 

1112. The lump-fish fastens itself by an apparatus on the lower part 

of its body, while the sucking- 
fish has a similar provision on 
his back, by which it attaches 
itself to the shark, or to what- 
ever is afloat, or the bottom of 
ships. In the cuttle-fish there 
is to be seen a modification of 
the same kind of apparatus, 
which can be turned by the 
animal in any direction, either 
to fix itself or to drag itself from 
place to place. There is an- 
other fish, called the "Harlequin 
angler." The appearance of this 
fish is grotesque and singular; 
the pectoral fins resemble short 
arms, and are palmated at their tips. These fins are converted into feet, 
and the fish has been known to live three days out of water, and walk 
about like a dog.* 

•Bell on the Hand. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



343 



"Cold welle streams, nothing dede, 
That swormmen full of smale fishes light, 
With finnes red, and scales silver bright." — Chaucer. 



Sub-order V. — Lophobranchia. 

1113. Why is the fifth sub-order named lophobranchia? 
From lophon, a crest, and branchia, gills — meaning 

crest-gilled. 

1114. In the lophobranchia the gills are arranged in little tufts, dis- 
posed in pairs along the branchial arches. The aperture for the exit of 
water is very small. The body is elongated in its form, and covered with 
bony plates. The fins are imperfectly developed. The bones of the face 
are prolonged, forming a snout. This sub-order includes only a single 
family, composed of small fishes, of very singular appearance. 

1115. Why has the sea-horse a small pouch-like open- 
ing upon its abdomen? 

In the course of the summer, this curious sac is filled 
with eggs; and at a later period, when the fry are hatched, 
they continue for a time to seek shelter within this singular 
cavity. 

1116. Mr. Yarrell describes this curious provision nearly as follows: 
"The male differs from the female in the belly, from the vent to the tail 
fin, being much broader, and in having, for about two-thirds of its length, 
two soft flaps, which fold together and form a pouch. They breed in 
summer, the females depositing their roe in the pouches of the males. 

1117. Why has the sea-horse * a pointed tail, desti- 
tute of the usual fin? 

It uses the long tapering tail to 
support itself by twisting it round 
the stems of sea-weed and other ob- 
jects, moving about slowly amongst 
sea-weed, by a series of undulations, 
feeding upon minute Crustacea, 
worms, mollusca, etc. As the crea- 
ture cannot pursue its prey, a caudal 
fin would be of no utility; the tail 
is therefore converted into a kind of 
fulcrum, from which the animal 
strikes its prey. 




* Hippocampus. 



344 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"And over all with scales was arm'd. 
Like plated cote of Steele, so couched neare 
That nought atoto perce." — Spenser. 



Sub-order VI. — Plectognatha. 

1118. Why is the sixth sub-order termed plectognatha ? 

From plecto, to connect, and gnathos, a jaw — signi- 
fying that the bones of the upper jaw and palate are con- 
nected with those ^f the cranium. 

1119. The head is large, the mouth small, and the gills so covered 
with skin and muscles that only a small aperture is left for the exit of 
water employed in respiration. The body is usually short and stout, and 
covered with a thick rough skin, or sometimes with bony plates. 

1 1 20. Why is the trunk-fish covered rvith a complete 
suit of bony plates? 

These plates furnish to the trunk-fish a coat of armor 

analogous to that worn by 
the armadillo, and doubt- 
less for similar purposes. 
The body is covered with 
plates, so as to form a 
perfect coat of armor, 
leaving only the tail, fins, 
mouth, and a small portion of the gill-opening, capable of 
motion, all of which moveable parts pass through open- 
ings of the armadillo-like coat of mail, the joints being pro- 
tected and rendered flexible by a leathery substance. 

ORDER IV. GANOIDEA. 

1121. Why is the fourth order of fishes named gan- 
oidea? 

From ganos, splendor, and edios, appearance. Of the 
remarkable fishes belonging to this order, very few exist 
at present in our waters. But their fossil remains occur in 
abundance in almost all the fossiliferous strata of the earth. 
They are divided into two sab-orders:— 

Sub-order L — Holostea. 
1 122. Why is the first sub-order of the ganoidea called 
holostea ? 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 345 

"From that clear space, where, in the cheerful ray 
Of the warm sun, the scaly people play." — Crabbe. 

From olos, the whole, and osteon, a bone, in reference 
io the fact of their being covered with a suit of scales or 
bone. 

Sub-order //. — Chondrostea. 

1 123. Why is the second sub-order of ganoidea called 
chondrostea ? 

From chondros, a cartilage, and ostean, a bone, sig- 
nifying the gristly nature of the fish. 

ORDER V. SELACHIA. 

1 1 24. Why is the fifth order of fishes called selachia ? 
From selachos, a Greek common noun, signifying a 
gristly, or cartilaginous fish. 

The skeleton in the selachia is entirely of a cartilaginous nature. The 
skull consists of a cartilaginous capsule, composed of a single piece with- 
out any indications of suture. The structure of the jaws varies con- 
siderably. They are divided into two sub-orders: 

Sub-order I. — Holocephala. 

1125. Why is the first sub-order of selacia called 
holocephala? 

From olos t whole, and cephale, head, meaning that the 
head is one entire piece or skull. 

1126. The holocephala are all oviparous, and their eggs, like those 
of the sharks and rays, are enclosed in a strong, horny capsule. 

Sub-order II. — Plagiostomata. 

1 127. Why is the second sub-order of selachia called 
plagiostomata ? 

From plagios, transverse or oblique, and stoma, mouth, 
in reference to the oblique form of the mouth, which is 
always arched, and contains numerous rows of teeth. The 
mouth is also wide, and placed on the lower surface of the 
body at some distance from the extremity of the snout. 

1 1 29. Why are sharks said to follow in the wake of 
ships on board which there may be sick people? 



346 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"Increasing still the terrors of these storms, 
His jaws horrific arm'd with threefold fate, 
Here dwells the direful shark. Lured by the scent 
Of steaming crowds, of rank disease, and death." — Thomson. 



Sharks instinctively follow ships, with the object of pick" 
ing up refuse matters which are constantly being thrown 
overboard. 

The well-known voracity of the shark — the manner 
in which it seizes upon the body of man alive or dead — 
gives it an ominous aspect when following in the wake of 
a ship having a sick crew. And hence has arisen the pop- 
ular error, that sharks follow ships, waiting for dead bodies 
to be thrown overboard. 



&2 , /°\ 




1 1 30. Why have the eggs of 
sharks and rays long filamentous proc- 
esses attached to them? 

For the purpose of attaching the 
eggs to sea-weeds, so that they may not 
be damaged by being beaten on the 
shores, nor preyed upon by crustaceous 
animals. Each egg consists of a horny 
case, filled with a nutritious fluid. The 
empty cases are frequently found by 
the sea-side, and are commonly called 
mermaid's purses. 



1131. Why have the rays, and 
kindred fishes, long tails armed with 
spines ? 

These organs, as well as being used 
for propulsion, are employed as weap- 
ons of defense, and from the muscular 
strength of the fish, are very formidable 
when seized or terrified; its habit is to 
twist its long and flexible tail round 
the object of attack, and, with the ser- 
rated spine, tear the surface, lacerating 
it in an effective manner. 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 347 

"Had I like fish, with fins and gills been made, 
Then might I in your element have played; 
With ease have dived beneath yon azure tide." — Fawkes. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 

1132. How is the breathing of fishes conducted? 
The breathing of fishes takes place by gills. The 

water, which is impregnated by atmospheric air, is taken 
in by the mouth, and forced out again by the apertures on 
each side of the neck. It is thus made to pass between the 
gills, which form a set of comb-like vascular fringes, sup- 
ported upon a system of bones termed the branchical arches, 
and during this passage the air is absorbed by the blood 
of the fish. 

These fringes are generally four in number on each 
side, and are attached by one extremity to an intermediate 
chain of bones situated opposite the middle of the neck, 
behind the hyoid bone, while by their opposite extremity 
they are joined by ligaments to the under surface of the 
skull. 

1 133. Why is the flesh of fishes white? 

Because after death the oxidized blood is chiefly con- 
fined to a few internal organs, as the heart, liver, kidneys, 
lungs, and gills; the flesh is consequently white and appar- 
ently bloodless. 

1 1 34. Why do fishes swallow their food hastily, and 
without mastication? 

Because they are obliged unceasingly to open and close 
the jaws for the purpose of respiration, and cannot Ionp 
retain food in the mouth when quite shut. 

1 1 35. Why are the teeth of fishes slightly curved in- 
wards? 

Because this form is best adapted for taking a firm 
hold of prey, which is frequently alive,- and which without 



348 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"See how she gasps, and struggles hard for life." — Lloyd. 

such a provision would, in its struggles, easily escape from 
the mouth of the captor. 

1 1 36. Why are certain species of fish constituted to 
live for a long period out of water? 

Because they inhabit ponds and streams in warm coun- 
tries, where, in many situations, there is an ample supply 
both of food and water for fish during the rainy season; 
but a complete deficiency of both when this is succeeded 
by a periodical drought. Such receptacles can only be 
tenanted by fish which are furnished with the peculiar ap- 
paratus for peeping the gill moist; since, when one pond 
or stream is dried up, they can migrate in search of another. 
In the course of these journeys, they climb up steep banks, 
and even trees; and, by a remarkable instinct, they seem 
always to travel to the nearest water. 

1137. Why is that part of the fisKs eyes known as 
the crystalline lens, much rounder than in the eyes of the 
terrestrial animals? 

Because the rays of light, in passing . from water into 
the eye, require to be refracted by a more convex surface 
than when it passes out of air into the eye. 

1138. As an illustration of the instances adduced here, of the adapta- 
tion of the fish's eye to the medium in which it lives, we may observe 
that the power in the human eye, for example, of drawing the pencil of 
rays to a focus, and producing an accurate image upon the retina in the 

bottom of the eye, depends 
principally upon two circum- 
stances — the form of the cornea 
and the convexity of the lens. 
That the cornea may produce 
this effect, it is not only neces- 
sary that it should be convex, as 
in fig. 1, but that the rays should 
enter it from a rarer medium. 
As this cannot be effected in the 
water, the lens or crystalline 
humor, which is much denser 
than water, is brought into operation. In the eye of an animal living in 
the atmosphere, the lens is removed backwards, and resembles the 




KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 349 

"The sounds and seas, with all their finny drove, 
Now to the moon in wavering morrice move." — MiLTON. 



optician's double convex lens; but in the fish it is a sphere, and being 
brought in contact with the transparent cornea, it not only has the power 
to concentrate the rays of light coming through the water, but by its 
altered position it increases greatly the sphere of vision (fig. 2). It 
may be added that it is not exactly the cornea that is deficient in the 
fish, but the aqueous humor behind it. An aqueous fluid being thus both 
behind and before the cornea, and that membrane being in a very slight 
degree thicker in the center than in the margin, this part of the organ 
which is so efficient in the atmosphere is rendered useless in water. A 
man diving, for example, sees imperfectly, somwhat in the condition of an 
aged person who requires spectacles. 

1 1 39. Why does a fish lie tvith its head against the 
stream ? 

Because when a fish is situated with his head down 
the stream, he is compelled to travel more rapidly than 
the waters, or the latter will find its rvay into the giRs, and, 
by becoming stationary, suffocate him. 

1140. A trout may be seen lying for hours stationary, while the 
stream is running past him; and it sometimes appears to remain so for 
whole days and nights. In salmon-fishing the fly is played upon the broken 
water in the midst of a torrent, and there the fish shows himself, rising 
from a part of the river where men could not preserve their footing, though 
assisted by poles, or locking their arms together. 

1141. Why do the jack and stickleback fceep up a 
continual motion of the fins nearest their gills? 

Because they frequent still shallows, and require the 
water to be perpetually brought to their gills. In this 
case, the water does not come of itself, and, therefore, the 
fish moves his pectoral fins continually to create a perpetual 
change in the water, propelling that which has already 
passed through the gills, bringing fresh in its place, and 
thus keeping up a constant current. 

1142. Neither to the jack nor the stickleback does the motion appear 
to cause any exertion; it seems natural to them, and a distinct function 
apart from the motion of the fins for swimming purposes. It is, in fact, 
somewhat analogous to the perpetual motion of the heart, lungs, and 
internal viscera in the human body. 




350 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and eat of 
the fish that hath fed of that worm."— Shakspere. 

1 1 43. Why do fishes which swim vertically inhabit 
near the surface, while those which swim horizontally fceep 

to the bottom? 

The fish which swims 
on edge has the tail 
much more effectively 
formed as a swimming 
organ, and the fins much 
firmer, as well as more 
produced; they are, 
therefore, rapid swim- 
mers, and rather dis- 
cursive in their motion. 
From a opposite development, fishes swimming on the flat 
of their bodies can only progress slowly, and do not, on 
that account, range far. 

1 144. Why will a fish which has broken away with a 
hook, frequently take another hook immediately afterwards? 
Because the mouths of fishes are usually cartilaginous, 
and furnished (at least in the part where the hook strikes) 
with few nerves, or they are altogether absent. In such 
a case the fish experiences little inconvenience from the pres- 
ence of a hook, and boldly strikes at a fresh bait. 

1145. Sir Humphrey Davy says: — "I have caught pike with four or 
five hooks in their mouths, and tackle which they had broken away with 
only a few minutes before; and the hooks seemed to have had no other 
effect than that of serving as a sauce piquante, urging them to seize 
another morsal of the same kind."* 

1 146. Why do wounds in fish heal rapidly, and why 
do they appear to be generally exempt from disease? 

Because fish have a strong resistance to disease-produc- 
ing bacteria, and because the temperature of the water, being 
cooler, as a rule, than that of the air, hinders the develop- 
ment of bacteria. The heat of the warm-blooded animals 
hastens bacterial development. However even fish suffer 
certain diseases. 

* "Salmonia." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 35 1 

"Being moody, give him line and scope; till that his 
passions, like a whale on ground, confound themselves 
with working." — Shakspere. 

1147. Why may a fish be "drowned" when being 
"played" by an angler? 

Because fishes breathe by passing water, which always 
holds common air in solution, through their gills, by the use 
of a series of muscles connected with them. 

When a fish is hooked in the upper part of the mouth, 
it is scarcely possible for him to set the muscles in action 
which move the gills, while the rod is applied as a lever to 
the line, so that no aerated water can be respired. 

1148. A fish, hooked in a part of the mouth where the force of the 
rod will render his efforts to respire unavailing, is much in the same state 
as that of a deer caught round the neck by the lasso of a South American 
peon, who gallops forwards dragging his victim after him, which is killed 
by strangulation in a very short time. When fishes are hooked foul — 
that is, on the outside of the body, as in the fins or tail— they will often 
fight for many hours, and in such cases very large salmon are seldom 
caught, as they retain their powers of breathing unimpaired; and if they 
do not exhaust themselves by violent muscular efforts, they may bid defi- 
ance to the temper and the skill of the fisherman.* 

1 1 49. Why is the migration of fishes of great import- 
ance to mankind? 

It is by these migrations that the blessings of fish diet 
are periodically bestowed upon the inhabitants of shores 
remote from each other. If such fishes were constant resi- 
dents in any one locality, we might feed on them to satiety; 
but, by a temporary privation, we learn to estimate the value 
of the treat, and to hope for the periodical return. 

1150. Why do fishes generally spawn in shallow 
waters ? 

Because a certain degree of solar heat and light is nec- 
essary for quickening the eggs into life; and also because 
the young fry are thereby protected from large fish. 

1151. Why does the sea sometimes exhibit a luminous 
appearance ? 

Because of the great numbers of medusoe 9 or jelly 
animalculae, which, being congregated in one part, under 
certain conditions emit a phosphorescent light. 

♦"Salmonia." 



352 KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 

"Order is Heaven's first law; and, this confessed, 
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." — Pope. 

1152. Why does the sea contain a certain proportion 
of saline matter? 

These saline matters have the effect of raising the freez- 
ing point, and diminishing the tendency to give off vapors; 
and, also, because it renders the water more buoyant, and 
thus makes it better fitted to support the animals which it 
contains. 



[The Author finds himself reluctantly compelled to 
omit the various Orders comprising the Division MoLLUSCA. 
The Entomological series alone would supply matter for a 
highly interesting volume; and in the hope that he may be 
soon able to present such a work to his readers* the Author 
will close his present labors* with a few questions of lead- 
ing application.] 



1153. Why has every race of animals its appointed 
enemy* or enemies? 

Because bitth* life* and death* constitute the order of 
nature appointed by a Divine Being. This order estab- 
lished, it may be accepted that the Infinite Wisdom whose 
works exhibit such marvelous adaptation and perfection, has 
chosen the best means to a necessary end. The death of 
an animal, as the prey of an appointed superior, is doubt- 
less a more rapid and painless process than we* with a 
dread of death* conceive. 

1154. Paley reasons upon this proposition in a conclusive manner: — 
"Perhaps there is no species of terrestrial animals whatever, which would 
not overrun the earth if it were permitted to multiply in perfect safety? 
or of a fish which would not fill the ocean : at least, if any single species 
were left to their natural increase without disturbance or restraint, the 
food of other species would be exhausted by their maintenance. 

"It is necessary, therefore, that the effects of such prolific faculties 
be curtailed. In conjunction with other checks and limits, all subservient 
to the same purpose, are the thinnings which take place among animals by 
their action upon one another. In some instances, we ourselves experi- 
ence, very directly, the use of tuese hostilities. One species of insects rids 
us of another species, or reduces their ranks; a third species, perhaps, keeps 
the second within bounds; and birds or lizards are * fence against the 
inordinate increase by which even these might infest us." 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 353 

"Cease, then, nor order imperfection name: 
Our proper bliss depends on what we blame." — Pope. 



To this may be added, that man alone appears to be without a natural, 
enemy, gifted with a special instinct and an organization intended to effect 
his conquest. The web of the spider is a beautiful contrivance, evidently 
designed to ensnare flies. The scent by which the stoat pursues the 
rabbit; the teeth with which the former perforates the neck of its victim, 
and the instinct which guides it to attack the neck, are three special 
means bestowed for a given end. The gaping mouths of swallows and 
night-jars are manifestly conceived for the purpose of capturing insects in 
the most certain manner. Although man is born the most defenseless of 
all creatures, there is not a single animal gifted with an instinct to pursue 
him, and armed with weapons adapted to give effect to that instinct. The 
elephant, the lion, and the tiger, although endowed with strength by which 
they could immediately crush him, all retire from and avoid his presence, 
unless he trespasses upon their haunts, or they are driven to extremities 
of rage or hunger by restraints which he imposes upon them. Regarded 
as enemies to man, their armatures are too formidable: the tusks of the 
elephant, and the talons or teeth of the lion and tiger, might be dis- 
pensed with, and they would still be immensely his superiors in the 
balance of natural powers. Even the vermin that sometimes surround and 
annoy man, are the enemies of his negligence and vices, and not of him- 
self. On the contrary, the whole of the animal creation, in some form 
or other, are friends of man, and contributors to his need. 

1155. TABLE OF THE FECUNDITY OF VARIOUS ANIMALS. 

Mammalia, Young at a birth. Swallow 5 or 6 

Bear 2 Wren 10 t0 16 

Elephant lv 

Hippopotamus 1 Flsh E *S S at a spawning. 

Leopard 2 to 4 Carp 205,000 

Lion _ __ _ 2 to 4 Codfish 3,686,000 

Rhinoceros 1 Flounders 1,357,000 

Herring 36,000 

Perch 28,000 

Birds Eggs at a sitting. Mackeral 546,000 

Eagle _______ 2 to 3 £*• £9,0u0 

Falcon 2 to 4 ? oa ° h §HS£ 



Fowl (domestic) _ 6 to 20 



Smelt 38,000 



Hawk _.__-__._:::::::: 2 t0 4 sou ... 100.000 

Owl 2 to 6 Tench 383,000 

Partridge 14 to 20 _ . 

Pheasant 10 to 20 Insects. Eggs in a season. 

Sparrow 4 to 6 Bee 10,000 

Sparrow-hawk 2 to 5 Gnat 2,000 

Stork 2 or 3 House-fly 20,000,000 

In five generations one aphis may produce 5,000,000,000, and there 
are 20 generations in a year. The numbers are beyond calculation. 

1 156. Why does the duration of life of different tribes 
greatly vary? 

The longevity of animal races appears to be in the 
inverse ratio of their fecundity. The wisdom of this ar- 
rangement is apparent : if mosquitoes and locusts prolific as 
they are, were appointed to live from a quarter to half a 
century, in spite of all existing natural checks, they would 



354 



KNOWLEDGE OF NATURAL HISTORY. 



"No more the paths of inisty doubt I trod: 
My reason saw, my soul confessed, a God!" 



render every other form of existence impossible. If lions 
and tigers, living for half a century, and possessed of enor- 
mous powers, were to multiply as rapidly as insects, they 
would overrun creation, unless, indeed, they destroyed each 
other. 

1157. TABLE OF THE LIFE PERIODS OF VARIOUS ANIMALS. 



Years. 

Ass, from »*& -. 25 to 50 

Antelope 16 to 18 

Bee (female) 4 

Bear . . 20 

Beaver 50 

Beetle 1 1 to 4 

Blackbird 10 to 12 

Blackcap — _- 15 

Bream * 10 

Bull 30 

Camel, from 50 to 60 

Canary, if it does not couple 24 

Carp, from _100 td 150 

Cat — 18 

Chaffinch 20 to 24 

Chamois --*_& 25 

Civet cat 12 to 14 

Cod 14 to 17 

Cow, sometimes more than 20 

Crane '. 24 

Cray-fish , 20 

Crocodile 100 

Crows , ,. 100 

Deer 20 

Dolphin 30 

Dog. from _23 to 28 

Eel — 10 

Eagle 100 

Ephemera (from egg to imago 3 

Ephemera (as a perfect fly) 

days ___________ 2 or 3 

Ephemera (other kinds) hours 2 or 3 
Elephant , «***« 150 to 200 



Fox . 
Fowl, 
Goat 



15 
10 
10 



Goldfinch _— «, 10 to 16 

Goose 50 

Hare 7 to 8 

Heron 60 

Hog 20 

Horse 25 to 30 

Hyenas - 25 to 30 

Jaguar 25 

Lark 16 to 18 



Years. " 

Linnet i — — — 14 to 23 

Lion 60 

Llama 15 

Lynx , ^_ 16 

Mantis . 10 

Margay ___16 to 17 

Monkey __-__ 16 to 18 

Nightingale — 16 to 18 

Ocelot ____— 16 to 18 

Ox employed in agriculture 19 

Parrots 100 

Peacock >. 24 

Pelican 40 to 50 

Pheasant and Partridge 15 

Pigeon 20 

Pike, sometimes more than 100 

Porpoise 30 

Rabbit, from - 8 to 9 

Racoon 12 

Raven 100 

Reindeer 16 

Rhinoceros — 20 

Redbreast 10 to 12 

Salmon M . . 10 

Scorpion »i - ^__ ;__ 1 

Serval _„ .16 to 18 

Sheep ^__ 10 

Skylark .,__ 10 to 30 

Sparrow-hawk _^ » 40 

Spider 1 

Squirrel m^mm *._ 7 

Stag, under _ 50 

Starling , ^____ 10 to 12 

Swan ■__- 100 

Tench 10 

Thrush 8 to 10 

Tiger and Leopard „ 25 

Tiger cat 16 to 18 

Titlark 5 to 6 

Toad —■---—-—. 20 to 30 

Tortoise 100 

Viper ... 6 to 7 

Wheatear . 2 

Wolf . 20 

Wren . 2 to 3 



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